(     B  E  R  K  E L EY\ 

LIBRARY 

:RSITY  OF 
V.    CALIFORNIA"^ 


EARTH 

SCIENCES 
LIBRARY 


AGRIODEFT. 


.• 


FIRST  ANNUAL  REPORT 


OF   THE 


Geological  Survey  of  Ohio, 


BY 


EDWARD  ORTON,   STATE  GEOLOGIST. 


PUBLISHED  BY  AUTHORITY  OF  THE  LEGISLATURE. 


COLUMBUS,   O.: 

THE   WESTBOTE  CO.,    ST.A.TK  PBINTBBS. 
1890. 


EARTH 

SCIENCEa 

LIBRARY 


OFFICERS  OF  THE  SURVEY. 


EDWARD  ORTON,  -  -  State  Geologist. 

STATE   UNIVERSITY,    COLUMBUS,    O.  , 

Residence  :    100  Twentieth  St. 

PROF.  N.   W.  LORD,  Chemist. 

STATE   UNIVERSITY,    COLUMBUS,    O. 

Residence:  .Corner  Highland  St.  and  Fourth  Ave. 
I 

PROF.  S.  W.  ROBINSON,  Special  Assistant  in  Measurement 

of  Gas  Wells  and  Pipe  Lines. 

STATE   UNIVERSITY,    COLUMBUS,    O. 
Residence  :    1353  Highland  St. 


PREFACE. 


This  first  annual  report  of  the  Geological  Survey  of  Ohio  under  its  new  organiza- 
tion has,  to  some  eztent,  fallen  short  of  the  purpose  with  which  it  was  begun.  It  was 
intended  that  the  report  should  furnish  a  review  of  the  various  mineral  interests  of  the 
State,  brought  down  to  the  date  of  publication.  Under  this  plan,  which  is  deferred 
rather  than  abandoned,  the  new  facts  pertaining  to  our  coal  resources  and  their  practical 
development,  to  our  quarries,  to  our  clay  deposits  and  the  manufactures  based  on  them, 
to  our  limes,  cements,  marls  and  plaster  beds  as  well  as  to  petroleum  and  gas  would  all 
find  place  in  the  annual  report  of  the  survey.  The  interest  at  present  pertaining  to  the 
last  subject  named  in  the  list  given  above  has,  however,  been  so  deep  and  wide-spread 
and  its  economic  importance  has  proved  so  large  that  the  logic  of  events  has  rendered  it 
necessary  to  devote  this  entire  report  to  Natural  Gas  and  Oil.  .It  has  thus  become  a 
monograph  upon  this  subject,  and  its  entire  300  pages  are  occupied  with  facts  and  dis- 
cussions growing  out  of  the  marvellous  discovery  of  Findlay  gas  and  Lima  oil  in  a 
Lower  Silurian  limestone  six  years  ago. 

The  natural  gas  interests  of  the  State,  in  particular,  have  demanded  and  received  in 
this  report  a  measure  of  attention  that  is  out  of  proportion  to  their  intrinsic  value. 
These  interests  are  in  marked  contrast  with  the  oil  interests  of  the  new  fields  in  this 
respect,  viz.,  that  while  the  latter  are  almost  exclusively  in  the  hands  of  those  whose 
knowledge  has  been  derived  from  a  varied  and  costly  experience  in  the  business,  the 
former  have  been  in  many  instances  turned  over  to  persons  who  have  never  seen  a  gas 
field  aside  from  the  particular  one  of  which  they  are  called  upon  to  take  charge.  It  is  not 
surprising,  under  such  circumstances,  that  crude  and  erroneous  views  in  regard  to  the 
nature  of  the  gas  supply  should  find  place  among  these  companies  and  municipal  boards, 
or  that  a  wasteful  and  extravagant  "policy  in  the  use  of  the  gas  should  be  established  or 
allowed  by  them.  To  convince  such  officials  that  gas  is  nol  being  generated  in  the  un- 
derlying rocks  as  fast  as  their  wells  are  able  to  withdraw  it,  that  it  is  strictly  stored 
power,  and  that  every  foot  taken  from  the  reservoir  leaves  the  amount  remaining  there 
so  much  the  less,  has  been  a  difficult,  and  in  some  respects  a  thankless  task.  Nature  has, 
however,  become  the  teacher  of  all  these  communities  that  have  broken  into  her  storehouses 
of  force,  and  falling  pressure  and  supply -pipes  half  filled,  have  come  even  more  speedily 
than  was  expected  to  convince  all  who  are  able  to  learn  that  high  pressure  gas  fields  are 
always  exhausted  by  use,  and  that  in  fact  they  begin  to  die  the  moment  they  begin  to 
live. 

For  the  most  efficient  service  of  all  the  interests  involved,  it  has  been  seen  from  the 
first  that  some  simple  means  for  determining  the  amount  of  gas  consumed  in  the  various 
uses  to  which  it  is  applied  is  essential.  A  system  of  measuring  the  volumes  of  gas 
wells  was  published  for  the  first  time  in  Volume  VI  of  the  survey  reports.  This  system 
has  been  universally  adopted  in  the  gas  fields  of  the  country,  and  is  recognized  as 
authoritative,  alike  in  business  transactions  and  in  courts  of  law.  It  is  a  great  pleasure 
to  add  that  the  present  report  contains  a  supplementary  system  devised  by  the  same 
author  and  equally  easy  of  application,  by  which  the  amount  of  gas  flowing  through  a 


VI  PREFACE. 


pipe  of  any  size  and  under  any  pressure  can  b.e  determined  by  a  simple  and  inexpensive 
gauge,  with  absolute  accuracy.  The  value  of  these  two  contributions  of  Professor  Robin- 
son to  the  natural  gas  interests  of  the  country  can  not  well  be  overstated.  The  pipe  line 
gauge  is  sure  to  find  an  equally  important  field  in  its  applications  to  producer  gas  or 
other  varieties  of  fuel  gas.  It  is  an  honorable  distinction  of  the  Ohio  Geological  Survey 
that  it  furnishes  to  practical  science  the  only  known  methods  of  %olving  the  two  impor- 
tant problems  already  named. 

There  are  no  gas  meters  made  that  are  able  to  take  account  of  the  gas  required  by 
large  works,  or  that  is  passing  through  main  pipe  lines;  but  to  the  new  gauge,  such 
measurements  are  as  easy  as  the  determination  of  the  amount  used  by  a  cook  stove  or  a 
grate.  The  largest  meters  that  are  in  market  are  so  expensive  that  this  fact  alone  for- 
bids their  adoption  for  any  thing  like  general  use,  but  the  new  gauge  takes  away  all 
excuse  from  gas  companies  or  municipal  gas  boards  for  disposing  of  the  precious  fuel 
that  has  come  into  their  hands,  with  the  ignorance  and  reckless  extravagance  that  have 
hitherto  prevailed.  They  can  at  least  know  what  they  are  doing.  It  must  be  added 
that  several  of  the  companies  and  boards  of  trustees  having  the  largest  amounts  of  gas  at 
their  disposal  have  already  availed  themselves  of  the  new  system.  The  new  gas  rates  of 
Findlay  for  manufacturers  are  based  on  measurements  made  by  the  Eobinson  gauge,  and 
which  were  executed  in  pajt  by  the  officers  of  the  Geological  Survey. 

With  this  volume,  the  almost  exclusive  privilege  which  oil  and  gas  have  maintained 
in  the  publications  of  the  survey  for  the  last  four  years  will  terminate.  In  the  next 
annual  report,  reviews  of  the  coal  fields,  the  stone  quarries,  the  clay  deposits  and  clay 
manufactures  of  the  State  will  be  made  special  features.  Chapters  on  these  subjects, 
indeed,  are  promised  for  the  present  volume  in  the  introduction,  page  8,  but  though  a 
good  deal  of  material  has  been  gathered  under  these  heads,  both  time  and  space  are 
wanting  for  their  proper  presentation.  The  same  line  of  remark  will  apply  to  the  chap- 
ter promised  on  the  Adams  county  fault,  a  careful  study  and  survey  of  which  have 
been  already  carried  on. 

Acknowledgments  are  due  to  so  many  persons  throughout  the  State  for  assistance 
in  gathering  the  data  of  the  present  volume,  that  it  is  almost  invidious  to  select  the 
names  of  any  for  special  mention.  Many  of  those  indeed  that  have  contributed  informa- 
tion of  the  greatest  value  would  prefer  to  be  left  unnamed.  It  is  from  the  representatives 
of  the  leading  gas  companies  and  oil  companies,  that  the«  most  important  facts  relating 
to  the  several  fields  have  been  obtained.  These  companies  can  at  least  be  credited  with 
a  kindly  interest  in  science.  Among  those  from  whom  the  largest  amount  of  informa- 
tion has  been  derived,  may  be  named  The  City  Gas  Works  of  Findlay  (municipal),  E. 
B.  Phillip,  Sup't ;  The  Lima  Natural  Gas  Co.,  A.  C.  Eeichelderfer,  Sup't;  The  North- 
western Ohio  Natural  Gas  Co.,  The.  Upper  Sandusky  Gas  Trustees,  (municipal),  Dr. 
A.  Billhardt,  The  Central  Ohio  Natural  Gas  Co.,  J.  O.  Johnston,  Sup't;  The  Ohio  Oil  Co., 
The  Shawnee  Oil  Co.,  The  Geyser  Oil  Co.,  The  Paragon  Refining  Co.,  The  Eagle  Refin- 
ing Co.,  and  the  Bradner  Refining  Co.,  E.  A.  Edwards,  Pres't.  To  this  list  the  follow- 
ing names  may  be  added  viz  :  C.  S.  Wade,  Esq.,  of  Findlay,  for  special  facts  pertaining 
o  Henry  township ;  J.  R.  Ware,  Esq.,  of  Findlay,  for  special  facts  pertaining  to  the 
Stuartsville  field,  and  John  Raudabaugh,  Esq.,  of  Celina,  for  results  of  measurements  of 
gas  used  in  glass  furnaces,  made  by  the  Robinson  gauge. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


INTRODUCTION , 
CHAPTER  I. 
CHAPTER  II. 
CHAPTER  III. 
CHAPTER  IV. 
CHAPTER  V. 
CHAPTER  VI. 
CHAPTER  VII. 
CHAPTER  VIII. 


PAGE. 
1— 


Geological  Scale  and  Geological  Structure  of  Ohio 9 —  54 

Origin  and  Accumulation  of  Petroleum  and  Natural  Gas...  55 — 104 

The  Trenton  Limestone  as  a  Source  of  Oil  and  Gas  105 — 226 

The  Clinton  Limestone  as  a  Source  of  Oil  and  Gas 227 — 247 

Remaining  Sources  of  Oil  and  Gas  in  Ohio 248 — 258 

The  Utilization  of  Natural  Gas  in  Ohio 259—280 

The  Measurement  of  Natural  Gas,  by  S.  W.  Robinson 281—305 

The  Wood  County  Oil  Field 306—311 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS   AND    MAPS. 


PLATE      I.  Geological  Scale  of  Ohio '...  faces  page  9 

PLATE    II.  Sections  showing  structure  of  Trenton  Lirmsto.ie "        "  105 

PLATE  III.  Sections  showing  rise  of  salt  water  in  Findiay  gas  rock....     "        "  121 

PLATE  IV.  Illustrations  of  the  Pitot  Tube  Gauge "        "  281 


MAPS   IN   POCKET. 

Map  of  Hancock,  Wood  and  other  counties Scale,  2  ms.  =  1  inch. 

Map  of  Allen,  Auglaize  and  Mercer  counties Scale,  2  ms.  =  1  inch. 

Map  of  the  Trenton  Limestone,  Oil  and  Gas  Fields  in  Ohio  and  Indiana. 


GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY   OF   OHIO. 


ANNUAL  RBPORT,  189O. 


2  GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO. 

survey  of  the  State  was  duly  established.  An  appropriation  of  twelve 
thousand  dollars  was  made  for  the  survey  and  Dr.  W.  W.  Mather,  of  New 
York,  was  placed  at  the  head  of  it,  with  the  title  of  Principal  Geologist. 
Six  assistants,  comprising  some  of  the  best  known  of  the  scientists  of  the 
State,  were  appointed  to  work  under  his  direction. 

The  period  of  financial  distress  which  broke  upon  the  country  in 
1837  proved  disastrous  to  the  newly  organized  survey.  All  possible  re- 
trenchment in  public  expenditures  was  demanded  on  every  side,  and 
the  appropriation  required  for  the  prosecution  of  the  survey  was  conse- 
quently withheld  by  the  next  succeeding  legislature,  and  the  work  of  the 
survey  was  thus  abruptly  terminated  at  the  end  of  the  second  season. 
Other  causes  contributed  in  some  degree  to  this  result,  a  change  in  the 
political  composition  of  the  legislature  being  a  factor. 

Two  annual  reports  remain  to  us  from  the  first  survey,  the  first  one, 
covering  the  field  work  of  1837,  sent  to  the  legislature  by  Governor  Joseph 
Vance,  January  17,  1838,  and  the  second  one,  covering  the  field  work  of 
1838,  sent  to  the  legislature  by  Governor  Wilson  Shannon,  December  16, 
1838.  These  reports  are  respectively  entitled,  the  First  and  Second  An- 
nual Reports  "  on  the  Geological  Survey  of  the  State  of  Ohio,  by  W.  W. 
Mather,  Principal  Geologist,  and  the  several  assistants.  Columbus,  1838." 

These  reports  added  much  to  our  knowledge  of  the  geology  of  Ohio, 
and  the  results  attained  by  the  first  survey  have  been  incorporated  in  all 
subsequent  work.  The  volumes  named  above  have  never  been  reprinted, 
and  although  editions  of  five  thousand  copies  were  issued  by  the  State, 
copies  are  now  rare  and  when  found  in  the  book  markets,  they  command 
a  ready  sale  and  a  relatively  large  price. 

SECOND  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY. 

The  untimely  suspension  of  the  investigation  of  the  mineral  wealth 
of  the  State,  which  had  been  so  well  begun,  was  widely  regretted  by  in- 
telligent citizens  and  many  unavailing  attempts  were  made  in  subsequent 
sessions  of  the  legislature  to  resuscitate  the  survey.  The  messages  of  the 
governors  in  particular,  during  the  next  thirty  years,  contain  numerous 
urgent  recommendations  of  the  policy  of  continuing  or  renewing  the 
geological  examination  of  the  State.  Among  those  who  invoked  the 
favorable  attention  of  the  legislature  to  this  subject  may  be  especially 
named :  Gov.  Corwin,  in  1841 ;  Gov.  Bartley,  in  1844;  Gov.  Chase,  in  1857 ; 
Gov.  Dennison,  in  I860;  Gov.  Cox,  in  1868,  and  Gov.  Hayes,  in  1868. 
The  survey  was  finally  renewed  under  Gov.  Hayes  in  1869.  An  elaborate 
report  on  the  desirability  of  resuming  it  on  the  part  of  the  State,  was 
made  by  Hon.  Alfred  E.  Lee,  then  representing  Delaware  county  in  the 
lower  House.  The  report  was  accompanied  by  a  bill,  also  drawn  up  by 


INTRODUCTION. 


Mr.  Lee,  providing  for  the  second  geological  survey  of  the  State,  and  this 
bill  became  a  law  on  April  3,  1869.  J.  S.  Newberry  was  appointed  Chief 
Geologist,  and  E.  B.  Andrews,  Edward  Orton  and  J.  H.  Klippart,  were 
appointed  assistants.  Several  changes  were  effected  in  the  organization 
of  the  survey  during  its  progress.  Its  duration  was  limited  in  the  bill 
providing  for  it  to  three  years,  but  the  time  of  the  corps  was  afterwards 
extended  two  years,  and  in  fact  the  publications  growing  out  of  the  work 
begun  by  it  were  continued  to  1888.  The  last  two  volumes,  viz.,  Volumes 
Five  and  Six,  and  the  preliminary  report  that  intervenes  between  them 
are  the  work  of  the  present  State  Geologist,  who  was  appointed  to  the 
specific  task  of  preparing  Volume  V  for  publication  in  accordance  with 
suitable  legislation,  by  Governor  Foster,  in  1882,  and  to  the  preparation 
of  Volume  VI,  by  Governor  Hoadly,  in  1885. 

It  is  unnecessary  to  review  in  this  connection  the  character  of  the 
work  accomplished  by  the  Second  Geological  Survey.  Its  publications 
are  numerous  and  they  have  been  widely  distributed  throughout  the  State, 
and,  indeed,  throughout  the  scientific  world.  They  have  been  unmistake- 
ably  serviceable  in  the  remarkable  development  of  the  mineral  wealth  of 
the  State  that  has  gone  forward  within  the  last  twenty  years,  and,  in  fact, 
they  are  inseparably  connected  with  this  development.  The  investment 
of  many  millions  of  foreign  capital  in  our  mines  and  railways  has  been 
largely  determined  by  the  impartial  and  judicial  testimony  of  our  State 
reports.  The  publications  of  the  Second  Survey,  with  a  single  exception, 
viz ,  the  Geological  Atlas,  have  been  printed  by  the  State.  They  are  as 
follows : 


Name. 

Date. 

No.  pages. 

No.  copies. 

Geologist 
in  charge. 

1 

Report  of  Progress  

1869 

176 

14  500 

2 

« 

1870 

568 

14,500 

« 

3 

u 

1871 

3 

300 

<i 

4 

Geology  of  Ohio,  Vol.  1.  Part  I, 
Geology   

1872 

680 

20000 

u 

5 

Geology  of  Ohio,  Vol.  1,  Part  II, 
Paleontology  

1873  | 

401 
49  plates. 

}  20,000 

U 

6 

Geology  of  Ohio,  Vol.  2,  Part  I, 
Geology  

1874 

701 

20000 

if 

7 

Geology  of  Ohio,  Vol.  2,  Part  II, 
Paleontology  

1875   | 

431 
59  plates. 

|  20,000 

il 

8 
9 

Geology  of  Ohio,  Vol.  3,  Geology 
Geological  Atlas  of  Ohio  

1878 
1879 

958 

20,000 
5000 

it 

a 

1A/ 

Geology  of  Ohio,  Vol.  4  

10  1 

Zoology  and  Botany  

J1882 

1,070 

20,000 

u  / 

Geology  of  Ohio,  Vol.  5  

-v 

11  1 

Economic  Geology  

^1884 

1,124 

10,000 

Orton. 

12 

Preliminary  Report  on  Petroleum 
and  Gas  

1886 

76 

2500 

li 

1Q/ 

Geology  of  Ohio,  Vol.  6  

13  1 

Economic  Geology  

\1888 

831 

15,000 

4  GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO 

Pockets  containing  maps,  sections  and  charts  have  accompanied  the 
reports  marked  as  the  second,  fourth,  sixth,  eleventh  and  thirteenth.  The 
large  number  of  copies  in  the  editions  of  volumes  one  to  four,  inclusive, 
necessitated  large  expenditures  for  publication  alone  for  the  years  in  which 
these  several  volumes  appeared.  Particularly  was  this  true  for  volumes 
one  and  two,  which  were  published  in  two  distinct  parts  of  different  size, 
the  second  part  of  each  volume  being  devoted  to  paleontology  and  being 
illustrated  by  fifty  to  sixty  CD  graved  plates  of  fossils.  These  latter  volumes 
were  highly  creditable  to  the  State  and  the  survey  on  scientific  grounds, 
and  they  have  been  eagerly  sought  for  by  the  students  of  geology  through- 
out the  world.  It  was  the  purpose  of  the  Chief  Geologist,  Dr.  Newberry, 
to  make  each  volume  of  the  final  report  a  double  one,  on  the  same  plan 
that  was  carried  out  in  the  first  two  volumes.  Suitable  material  was 
accordingly  prepared  for  the  second  or  paleontological  part  of  Volume 
Three,  but  this  material  has  never  been  published.  Considerable  expen- 
diture has  been  already  incurred  by  the  State  in  the  preparation  of  this 
sec'ond  part  of  the  volume.  A  large  number  of  plates  and  the  necessary 
descriptive  text  have  been  for  years  in  Dr.  Newberry's  hands,  awaiting  the 
order  of  the  legislature.  The  materials  are  undoubtedly  of  very  interest- 
ing character,  and  it  is  much  to  be  regretted  that  they  should  be  so  long 
lost  to  science. 

It  was  not  at  the  instance  of  the  geologists  of  the  State  that  so  large 
editions  of  the  reports  as  those  already  noted  were  issued.  Dr.  Newberry 
recommended  an  edition  of  five  thousand  copies  of  the  final  report,  viz., 
Volumes  I,  II,  etc.  It  was  the  judgment  of  the  legislature,  however,  that 
four  times  this  number  was  demanded,  and,  as  already  shown,  four  times 
this  number  were  issued  of  each  of  the  first  four  volumes  of  the  final  report. 
Something  can  be  said  in  favor  of  this  liberal  policy.  The  reports  were 
educational  to  a  large  extent,  and  in  many  cases  they  had  a  direct  bear- 
ing on  economic  interests.  They  were  consequently  sought  for  by 
various  classes  of  our  people,  and  expenditures  even  as  large  as  those 
needed  for  this  purpose  could  be  justified,  or  at  least  defended,  on  the 
grounds  here  indicated.  When,  however,  we  come  to  the  distribution  of 
these  large  and  consequently  costly  editions,  we  find  a  state  of  things  that 
is  almost  beyond  belief.  No  two  of  the  several  volumes  that  constitute 
the  series  have  been  published  and  distributed  by  the  same  legislature. 
In  other  words,  the  several  volumes  have  been  ordered  and  distributed  by 
distinct  legislatures.  The  plan  of  distributing  the  editions  has  thus  far 
been  essentially  as  follows :  One  hundred  copies  or  less  have  been  assigned 
to  the  State  Library  for  its  exchanges ;  three  to  four  hundred  copies  have 
been  assigned  to  the  State  Geological  Corps  for  the  personal  exchange  of 
its  members,  and  occasionally  single  copies  have  been  assigned  to  the 


INTRODUCTION.  5 

several  State  officers  and  also  to  the  public  institutions  of  the  State.  The 
balance  of  the  entire  editions  has  been  divided  pro  rata  among  the  mem- 
bers of  the  General  Assembly.  Provision  has  not  been  at  any  time  made 
in  case  of  the  first  four  volumes,  for  those  who  would  gladly  purchase  the 
volumes  in  open  market.  Of  the  distribution,  no  lists  whatever  have 
been  kept,  so  far  as  State  action  is  concerned.  The  legislature  that  dis- 
tributed Volume  II,  for  example,  had  no  official  knowledge  of  the  dispo- 
sition of  the  copies  of  Volume  I ;  and,  while  intelligent  and  painstaking 
members  have  seen  to  it  in  some  instances  that  the  sets  already  begun  in 
their  respective  countieb  were  maintained  by  the  volumes  at  their  own 
disposal,  in  the  large  majority  of  cases  no  attention  whatever  has  been 
given  to  such  considerations,  but  the  volumes  have  been  handed  out  to 
personal  or  political  friends  of  the  members  or  to  the  first  applicants,  as 
the  case  may  be.  Many  thousands  of  copies  of  the  several  volumes  are 
thus  scattered  in  broken  sets  throughout  the  State.  Of  the  20,000  copies 
issued  of  each  of  the  earlier  volumes,  it  is  almost  certain  that  there  are  not 
5,000  complete  sets  in  the  State.  As  was  suggested  above,  it  is  almost 
beyond  belief  that  after  making  such  liberal  appropriations  for  publica- 
tion, the  legislators  should  have  allowed  the  resulting  volumes  to  have 
been  scattered  over  the  State  in  such  a  reckless  and  wasteful  fashion. 

The  great  revival  of  geological  interest  that  has  followed  the  search 
for  gas  and  oil  throughout  the  State,  during  the  last  five  years,  has  led  to 
a  new  demand  for  the  earlier  geological  volumes,  and  many  of  the  widely 
scattered  copies  of  the  several  reports  have  been  gathered  into  at  least 
larger  aggregates,  if  not  into  complete  sets.  Book  dealers  have  taken 
advantage  of  the  new  demand  and  second  hand  copies  are  now  to  be 
bought  at  many  points  in  the  State  at  prices  ranging  from  $1.50  to  $3  50 
per  volume ;  complete  sets  are  sold  from  $15.00  to  $25.00.  Volumes  V  and 
VI  were  not  only  published  in  smaller  editions  than  those  of  the  previous 
volumes,  but  provision  was  made  for  the  sale  by  the  Secretary  of  State  of 
a  certain  number  of  copies  at  cost  of  publication.  This  arrangement  has 
made  it  possible  for  all  persons  possessing  the  previous  volumes  to  com- 
plete their  sets  by  purchase,  and  also  for  persons  living  outside  the  State 
to  procure  copies  of  volumes  that  treat  of  subjects  in  which  they  may  be 
directly  interested. 

PRESENT  ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  SURVEY. 

By  an  act  of  the  68th  General  Assembly,  passed  April  12,  1889,  the 
Geological  Survey  of  the  State  has  been  put  upon  a  somewhat  different 
basis  from  any  that  it  has  hitherto  occupied.  Its  work  is  now  counted 
continuous.  The  State  Geologist  is  appointed  for  a  term  of  three  years, 
and  is  required  to  present  annual  reports  to  the  legislature.  There  are 


6  GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO. 

certain  advantages  incident  to  the  new  system  which  will  not  escape 
notice.  In  the  first  place,  it  is  now  possible  to  present  to  the  public  the 
important  facts  of  the  year,  before  they  have  lost  their  novelty  and 
interest.  Under  the  system  previously  followed,  several  years  would 
necessarily  elapse  after  a  volume  was  begun  before  it  could  be  completed, 
and  consequently  much  of  the  information  gathered  during  the  first  or 
second  years  might  partially  lose  its  importance  before  it  could  be  made 
available  to  the  public.  In  the  second  place,  the  new  system  allows 
methodical  and  continuous  work.  Plans  can  be  formed  covering  several 
years  for  their  accomplishment,  and  the  task  begun  in  one  season  can  be 
carried  forward  in  the  next.  Under  the  old  system,  questions  would  often 
arise  to  which,  after  more  or  less  investigation,  only  incomplete  answers 
could  be  given  from  a  want  of  time  to  apply  to  them,  and  consequently 
the  labor  already  spent  on  them  would  be  in  part  forfeited.  In  the  third 
place,  it  is  obvious  that  a  greater  economy  can  be  realized  on  this  plan  of 
procedure  than  under  the  former  system  and  an  inexpensive  organization 
may  be  maintained  by  which  the  records  of  progress  can  be  kept  up,  and 
by  which  a  steady,  though  slow  advance  can  be  made.  The  expenses  of 
publication  can  also  be  kept  within  the  lowest  limits  by  the  present 
system. 

In  most  of  the  States  in  which  mineral  wealth  makes  an  important 
element,  the  system  now  adopted  in  Ohio  has  been  found  advantageous. 
Continuous  work  and  annual  reports  are  in  force,  among  other  States,  in 
New  York,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  Michigan,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Ken- 
tucky, Minnesota,  Missouri,  Arkansas,  Georgia  and  Alabama.  It  is 
especially  desirable  that  while  the  remarkable  and  unexpected  dis- 
coveries of  the  bituminous  forms  of  mineral  wealth  in  Ohio  are  going  for- 
ward, opportunity  should  be  afforded  for  geological  examination  and 
record  of  the  facts  as  fast  as  they  are  brought  to  light.  The  develop- 
ments of  the  present  decade  are  scarcely  likely  to  be  repeated,  and  the 
geological  information  to  be  derived  from  them  is  of  the  highest  interest 
and  value. 

The  range  of  work  to  be  included  under  the  survey  on  its  present 
basis  can  be  learned  from  an  examination  of  the  law  under  which  it  is 
established.  It  is  made-  the  duty  of  the  State  Geologist  "  to  study  and 
determine,  as  nearly  as  possible,  the  number  and  extent  of  the  various 
formations  of  the  State,  to  represent  the  same,  from  time  to  time,  upon 
properly  constructed  maps  and  diagrams;  to  study  the  modes  of  occur- 
rence and  the  distribution  of  the  useful  minerals  and  products  of  these 
iormations;  to  determine  the  chemical  composition  and  structure  of  the 
same;  to  investigate  the  soils  and  the  water  supply  of  the  State,  and  to 
give  attention  to  the  discoveries  of  coal,  building  stone,  natural  cement' 


INTRODUCTION  7 

petroleum,  gas  and  other  natural  substances  of  use  and  value  to  the  citizens 
of  the  State.  He  may  also  collect  and  describe  the  fossils  of  the  various 
geological  formations  of  the  State,  but  no  expenditure  shall  be  incurred 
under  this  head,  that  is  not  expressly  ordered  and  provided  for  by  the 
General  Assembly." 

It  is  here  seen  that  the  objects  of  the  Survey  are  essentially  practical. 
The  economic  phases  of  geological  science  are  those  to  which  the  work  of 
the  Survey  must  be  principally  devoted.  In  addition  to  the  subjects 
ordinarily  embraced  under  the  head  of  economic  geology,  as  the  study  of 
coals,  clays,  ores,  building  stones,  oil  and  gas,  there  are  two  other  subjects 
that  unquestionably  should  be  included  here,  viz. :  the  study  of  the  soils 
and  of  the  water  supply  of  the  State  from  a  geological  point  of  view. 

The  soil  is  strictly  a  geological  formation,  and  by  far  the  most  im- 
portant and  valuable  formation  of  the  entire  geological  series  of  the  State. 
The  connection  between  the  geology  and  the  agriculture  of  Ohio  has 
never  yet  been  studied  with  proper  care.  It  is  confessedly  a  complicated 
and  difficult  subject,  but  it  may  be  that  the  time  has  now  come  when 
some  advance  in  our  knowledge  can  be  made.  The  fact  that  a  thoroughly 
equipped  and  efficient  Experiment  Station  is  now  in  operation  in  the 
State,  may  render  it  possible  to  attack  the  problems  involved  with  better 
prospects  of  success  than  have  ever  yet  been  offered.  The  only  possi- 
bilities of  success  must  obviously  lie  in  the  harmonious  co-operation  of 
the  Survey  and  the  Experiment  Station. 

Attention  has  been  called,  on  a  preceding  page,  to  the  cordial  and 
earnest  recommendations  of  the  several  "governors  ot  the  State  between 
1840  and  1868,  to  the  effect  that  the  geological  survey  of  1838  should  be 
resumed  and  completed.  It  is  worthy  of  note  that  the  arguments  which 
seemed  to  weigh  most  with  them  were  based  on  the  belief  that  an  ade- 
quate geological  survey  would  be  able  to  render  valuable  service  to  the 
agricultural  interests  of  the  State.  While  these  anticipations  may  have 
been  somewhat  more  sanguine  than  the  facts  would  warrant,  it  would 
certainly  be  premature  to  conclude  that  geology  can  render  no  definite  or 
valuable  service  to  this  great  interest. 

The  water  supply  of  the  State,  including  as  it  does  all  the  natural 
storage  of  the  geological  formations,  is  a  subject  of  large  and  growing 
interest. 

• 

SCOPE  OF  THE  PRESENT  REPORT. 

It  is  to  be  presumed  that  the  present  report  will  fall  into  the  hands 
of  many  who  have  not  had  access  to  the  volumes  of  the  Second  Survey. 
It  is,  therefore,  necessary  that  it  should  contain  a  brief  review  of  the 


8  GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO. 

geological  scale  and  structure  of  the  State,  in  order  that  the  discussions  of 
the  topics  to  be  treated  in  it  can  be  intelligently  followed.  And,  further- 
more, since  the  production  of  gas  and  oil  are  to-day  the  leading  leatures 
in  the  economic  geology  of  the  State,  so  far  as  the  popular  interest  is  con- 
cerned, the  principal  theories  as  to  the  origin  and  accumulation  of  these 
substances  will  be  briefly  reviewed,  and  the  laws  that  govern  their  dis- 
tribution, so  far  as  they  are  now  understood,  will  be  briefly  pointed  out. 
The  materials  for  these  two  reviews  will  be  mainly  drawn  from  the  dis- 
cussions of  the  same  subjects  in  the  sixth  volume  of  the  Geology  of  Ohio. 

The  largest  section  of  the  present  report  will  naturally  be  devoted  to 
a  record  of  the  surprising  and  important  facts  connected  with  the  recent 
discovery  and  utilization  of  natural  gas  and  petroleum,  one  or  both,  in 
various  portions  of  the  State.  The  two  new  horizons  of  oil  and  gas  which 
have  been  brought  to  light  in  Ohio,  viz  :  the  Trenton  and  Clinton  lime- 
stones, will  be  specially  considered  in  this  connection. 

Brief  accounts  will  also  be  added  of  new  facts  pertaining  to  the  coals, 
clays,  ores  and  building  stones  of  the  State. 

A  description  of  the  celebrated  "  fault "  of  Adams  county  will  also 
be  included  here.  This  fault  is  the  most  marked  feature  of  its  kind  in 
the  geology  of  the  State.  It  has  been  recognized  since  the  time  of  the 
First  Survey,  but  no  detailed  account  of  it,  and  especially  no  map  of  its 
location  and  extent,  have  been  made  public  hitherto. 


PLATE    I. 


SYSTEM 


CO 

D 
O 
cc 

LU 
U. 

z 
O 

00 

oc 

< 

O 


UJ 
O 


18 


10 


SERIES. 


GLACIAL  DRIFT 
0-660 


UPPER  BARREN  COAL  MEASURES 


UPPER  PRODUCTIVE  COAL  MEASURES 


LOWER  PRODUCTIVE  COAL  MEASURES 


CONGLOMERATE  SERIES 

SUBCARBONIFEROUS    LIMESTONE          'SHALE 

HE  LOQAN  GROUP  <JSANDSTONE 

[CONGLOMERATE 


WAVERLY 
600-800 


IID  CUYAHOQA  SHALE 

110  BEREA  SHALE 

IIB  BEREA  GRIT 

IIA  BEDFORD  SHALE 


OHIO  SHALE 


>HIO  SHAL 
3oo—  2  600 

HAMILTON  SHALE 

DEVONIAN  LIMESTONES 26-76 


100  CLEVELAND  SHALE 

IOB  ERIE  SHALE 
IOA  HURON  SHALE 


200 


KOO 


850 


»50 


150 


200 
35 


'.'.'.'     .' 


r±z±n 


r— r 


hSOO 


< 


(0 


z 
E 

3 

_l 

CO 

oc 

hi 
O 


LOWER  HELDERBERG  LIMESTONE 


60-600 


NIAGARA  SERIES 


T~T 


r~r 


'60  HILLSBORO  SANDSTONE 
60  OUELPH  LIMESTONE 

6B  NIAGARA  LIMESTONE 


I  ,  I  ,  I  .1'  I    »    'I 


300 


800 


CLINTON  SERIES!  BA  NIAGARA  SHALE.  DAYTON  LIME 
MEDINA  SHALES 


HUDSON  RIVER  SERIES 
6OO— IO5Q/ 


UTICA  SHALES 
o— 3oo 

TRENTON  LIMESTONE 


600 


300 


CHAPTER    I. 


GEOLOGICAL  SCALE  AND  GEOLOGICAL  STRUCTURE  OF  OHIO. 

In  order  to  render  intelligible  the  statements  that  are  to  follow,  a 
brief  account  will  here  be  given  of  the  geological  series  of  the  State,  and 
also  of  its  geological  structure.  A  somewhat  elementary  character  will  be 
given  to  this  review,  in  order  that  it  may  meet  as  fully  as  possible  the 
new  demands  for  geological  information  that  come  from  every  section  of 
the  State.  A  few  fundamental  facts  pertaining  to  the  subject  will  be 
stated  in  the  way  of  an  introduction  to  this  review. 

1.  So  far  as  its  exposed  rock  series  is  concerned,  Ohio  is  built 
throughout  its  whole  extent  of  stratified  deposits ;  or,  in  other  words,  of 
beds  of  sand,  clay  and  limestone,  in  all  their  various  gradations,  that  were 
deposited  or  that  grew  in  water.  There  are  in  the  Ohio  series  no  igneous 
nor  metamorphic  rocks  whatever;  that  is,  there  are  no  rocks  that  have 
assumed  their  present  form  and  condition  from  a  molten  state  or  that 
subsequent  to  their  original  formation  have  been  transformed  by  heat. 
The  only  qualification  which  this  statement  needs  pertains  to  the  beds  of 
drift  by  which  a  large  part  of  the  State  is  covered.  These  drift  beds  con- 
tain bowlders  in  large  amount  that  were  derived  from  the  igneous  and 
metamorphic  rocks  1hat  are  found  around  the  shores  of  Lakes  Superior 
arid  Huron.  But  these  bowlders  are  recognized  by  all,  even  by  the  least 
observant,  as  foreign  to  the  Ohio  scale.  They  are  familiarly  known  as 
"  lost  rocks,"  or  "  erratics." 

If  we  should  descend  deep  enough  below  the  surface  we  should  reach 
the  limit  of  these  stratified  deposits  and  come  to  the  great  foundations  of 
the  continent  which  constitute  the  surface  rocks  in  parts  of  Canada,  New 
England  and  the  West.  The  granite  of  Plymouth  Rock  underlies  the 
continent.  But  the  drill  has  never  yet  hewed  its  way  down  to  these  firm 
and  massive  beds  within  our  boundaries. 

The  rocks  that  constitute  the  present  surface  of  Ohio  were  formed  in 
water,  and  none  of  them  have  been  modified  or  masked  by  the  action  of 
high  temperatures.  They  remain  in  substantially  the  same  condition  in 
which  they  were  formed. 


IO  GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO. 

2.  With  the  exception  of  the  coal  seams,  and  a  few  beds  associated 
with  them,  and  of  the  drift  deposits,  all  the  formations  of  Ohio  grew  in 
the  sea.     There  are  no  lake  or  river  deposits  among  them ;  but  by  count- 
less and  infallible  signs  they  testify  to  a  marine  origin.     The  remnants  of 
life  which  they  contain,  often  in  the  greatest  abundance,  are  decisive  as 
to  this  point 

3.  The  sea  in  which  or  around  which  they  grew  was  the  former 
extension  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.     When  the  rocks  of  Ohio  were  in  process 
of  formation,  the  warm  waters  and  genial  climate  of  the  Gulf  extended 
without  interruption  to  the  borders  of  the  Great  Lakes.     All  of  these 
rocks  had  their  origin  under  such  conditions. 

4.  The  rocks  of  Ohio  constitute  an  orderly  series.     They  occur  in 
wide  spread  sheets,  the  lowermost  of  which  are  co- extensive  with  the 
limits  of  the  State.     As  we  aecend  in  the  scale,  the  strata  constantly 
occupy  smaller  areas,  but  the  last  series  of  deposits,  viz.,  those  of  the 
Carboniferous  period,  are  still  found  to  cover  at  least  one-fourth  of  the 
entire  area  of  the  State.     Some  of  these  formations  can  be  followed  into 
and  across  adjacent  States  in  apparently  unbroken  continuity. 

The  edges  of  the  successive  deposits  in  the  Ohio  series  are  exposed  in 
innumerable  natural  sections,  so  that  their  true  order  can  generally  be 
determined  with  certainty  and  ease. 

5.  For  the  accumulation  and  growth  of  this  great  series  of  deposits, 
vast  periods  of  time  are  required.     Many  millions  of  years  must  be  used 
in  any  rational  explanation  of  their  origin  and  history.     All  of  the  stages 
of  this  history  have  practically  unlimited  amounts  of  past  time  upon 
which  to  draw.     They  have  all  gone  forward  on  so  large  a  scale,  so  far  as 
time  is  concerned,  that  the  few  thousand  years  of  human  history  would 
not  make  an  appreciable  factor  in  any  of  them.     In  other  words,  five 
thousand  years,  or  ten  thousand  years,  make  too  small  a  period  to  be 
counted  in  the  formation  of  coal,  for  example,  or  in  the  accumulation  of 
petroleum,  or  in  the  shaping  of  the  surface  of  the  State  through  the  agen- 
cies of  erosion.     The  time  that  has  passed  since  man  has  been  in  the  world 
has  been  computed  by  some  geologists  as  less  than  half  of  one  per  cent,  of 
the  entire  time  occupied  by  geological  history. 

I.    THE  GEOLOGICAL  SCALE  OF  OHIO. 

The  geological  scale  of  Ohio  comprises  strata  of  Lower  Silurian, 
Upper  Silurian,  Devonian,  Sub-carboniferous  and  Carboniferous  age, 
and  also  a  series  of  glacial  deposits.  The  principal  divisions  are  shown 
in  the  following  table.  The  thickness  that  is  assigned  to  each  of  the 
elements  is  not  necessarily  the  average  thickness  of  the  various  exposures. 
In  some  cases,  the  general  measure  is  given ;  in  others,  it  is  counted  better 


GEOLOGICAL  SCALE  AND  STRUCTURE.  I  I 

to  indicate  the  thickness  of  some  of  the  more  characteristic  exposures. 
In  the  text,  the  limits  of  each  formation  will  be  more  definitely  given  : 

18.  Glacial  drift 0  to  550  feet. 

17.  Upper  Barren  Coal  Measures 

16.  Upper  Productive  Coal  Measures 

15.  Lower  Barren  Coal  Measures 

14.  Lower  Productive  Coal  Measures 250  j    %  v 

13.  Conglomerate  Group 250    ' 

12.    Sub- carboniferous  limestone,  Maxville,  Newtonville,  etc.  25    "       }    ^ 

f  lie  Logan-Group,  0-350 1  500    "  o  „. 

I  HdCuyahogaSha]e,150-450.  |  500M 

11.    Waverly  Group  -j  lie  Berea  Shale,  20-  50 J-    to  500    " 

lib  Berea  Grit,  3  to  160 |  80(Xj  |  -§- 

[  lla  Bedford  Shale,  50-150...  J  J  o> 

f  lOc  Cleveland  Shale.. ") 

10.     Ohio  Shale  \  lOb  Erie  Shale [  250  to  3,000  feet 300    "       ]  q 

(.lOa  Huron  Shale I  |  .5 

9.    Hamilton  Shale  (Olentangy  Shale?) 25    " 

8.     Devonian  Limestone,  Upper  Helderberg  or  Corniferous,  |  £ 

including  West  Jefferson  sandstone. 75    "       J  P 

7.     Lower  Helderberg  limestone   or  Waterlime,   including 

Sylvania  sandstone,  50  to  600  feet 500    " 

'  6d  Hillsboro'  sandstone 30    " 

6c    Guelph    or  Cedarville    limestone, 

„.  50-200 150    " 

Niagara  Group  -j  gb  Niagara  iimestone 50    "        ,  ~ 

|  6a  Niagara  Shale,  including  Dayton 

limestone,  5  to  100 100    " 

5.     Clinton  Group,  in  outcrop,  20  to  75  feet ;  under  cover,  75 

to  150 50    ' 

4.    Medina  Shale,  in  outcrop,  25' ;  under  cover,  50  to  150 75    ' 

3.     Hudson  Eiver  Group,  300'  to  750X 750  "  "1    *.  a 

2.    Utica  Shale,  not  seen  in  outcrop,  but  300  feet  thick  under  I  I  'C 

cover  in  Northern  Ohio , 300  '  '   o^a 

1.     Trenton  limestone,  seen  only  in  Pt.  Pleasant  quarries 50  "  Jg 

The  geological  order  above  described  is  further  represented  in  the 
accompanying  diagram,  figure  I.  A  brief  review  of  each  of  these  divisions 
will  next  be  made. 


1.     THE  TRENTON  LIMESTONE. 

The  Trenton  limestone  is  one  of  the  most  important  of  the  older  for- 
mations of  the  continent.  It  is  the  most  widespread  limestone  of  the 
general  scale.  It  extends  from  New  England  to  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
and  from  the  islands  north  of  Hudson's  Bay  to  the  southern  extremity  of 
the  Allegheny  Mountains  in  Alabama  and  Georgia.  Throughout  this  vast 
region,  it  is  found  exposed  in  innumerable  outcrops.  It  gives  rise,  as  it 
a*K3ays,  to  limestone  soils,  which  are  sometimes  of  remarkable  fertility,  as 
ror  example,  those  of  the  famous  Blue  Graes  region  of  central  Kentucky, 


12  GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO. 

which  are  derived  from  it.  It  is  worked  for  building  stone  in  hundreds 
of  quarries,  and  it  is  also  burned  into  lime  and  broken  into  road  metal  on 
a  large  scale  throughout  the  regions  where  it  occurs.  But  widespread  as 
are  its  exposures  in  outcrop,  it  has  a  still  wider  extension  under  cover. 
It  is  known  to  make  the  floor  of  entire  States  in  which  it  does  not  reach 
the  surface  at  a  single  point. 

•  It  takes  its  name  from  a  picturesque  ami  well  known  locality  in  Tren- 
ton township,  Oneida  county,  New  York.  The  West  Canada  Creek  makes 
a  rapid  descent  in  this  township,  from  the  Adirondack  uplands  to  the 
Mohawk  Valley,  falling  three  hundred  feet  in  two  miles  by  a  series  of 
cascades.  These  cascades  have  long  been  known  as  the  Trenton  Falls., 
and  the  limestone  which  forms  them  was  appropriately  named,  by  the 
New  York  geologists,  the  Trenton  limestone.  The  formation  as  seen  at 
the  original  locality  is  found  to  be  a  dark  blue,  almost  black,  limestone, 
lying  in  quite  massive  and  even  beds,  which  are  sometimes  separated  by 
layers  of  black  shale.  But  it  is  to  be  noted  that  a  few  feet  of  its  uppermost 
beds  consist  of  crinoidal  limestone  of  great  purity  of  composition.  Both 
limestone  and  shale  contain  excellently  preserved  fossils  of  Lower  Silurian 
age.  By  means  of  these  fossils,  and  also  by  its  stratigraphical  order,  the 
limestone  is  followed  with  perfect  distinctness  from  Trenton  Falls  to  ever^ 
point  of  the  compass.  It  is  changed  to  some  extent  in  color  and  compo- 
sition, as  it  is  traced  in  different  directions,  but  there  is  seldom  a  question 
possible  as  to  its  identity.  The  Trenton  limestone  forms  several  of  the 
largest  islands,  in  whole  or  in  part,  in  the  northern  portion  of  Lake  Huron, 
as  the  Manitoulin  Islands  and  Drummond's  Island.  It  dips  from  this 
region  to  the  southward,  but  it  is  found  rising  again  in  outcrop  in  the 
valley  of  the  Kentucky  River,  and  probably  also  at  a  single  point  within 
the  limits  of  Ohio,  viz.,  in  the  quarries  of  Point  Pleasant,  which  are  located 
in  the  valley  of  the  Ohio,  in  Clermont  county,  twenty  miles  above  Cin- 
cinnati. The  Point  Pleasant  beds  have  a  thickness  of  about  fifty  feet. 

The  character  of  the  rock  found  in  the  Point  Pleasant  quarries  is 
briefly  described  in  Vol.  I,  Geology  of  Ohio,  page  370.  The  limestone  is 
a  light,  or  greyish-blue  limestone,  crystalline  in  structure,  massive  in  ita 
bedding  and  fos3iliferous.  The  solid  masses  are  interrupted  to  some  ex- 
tent by  thinner  beds  of  shale.  It  breaks  under  the  drill  into  thin  flakes, 
rather  than  into  cubical  grains.  The  analysis  of  a  single  sample  of  Point 
Pleasant  limestone  is  as  follows : 

Carbonate  of  lime 79.30 

Carbonate  of  magnesia 91 

Silicious   matter , 12.00 

Alumina  and  iron 7.00 


GEOLOGI  :AL    SCALE    AND    STRUCTURE  13 

This  composition  represents  the  limestone  fairly  well  in  its  Kentucky 
outcrops  also.  It  is  seen  to  be  impure  and  of  a  character  that,  by  its  de- 
cay, would  leave  a  large  residue  to  the  forming  soil.  In  some  parts'of 
northwestern  Ohio  and  adjacent  regions,  the  uppermost  beds  of  the  Tren- 
ton limestone  for  five  feet  to  one  hundred  feet  are  found  to  be  magnesian 
limestone  of  a  good  degree  of  purity.  Its  composition  as  seen  in' the  gas 
rock  and  oil  rock  of  the  new  fields  is  given  below  : 

1.  Trenton  limestone  at  Findley,  1,096  feet  below  surface. 

2.  "  Lima, "  1,247  "  "  " 

3.  "  Bowling  Green,  1,091  "  "  " 

4.  "  Kokomo,  Ind.,      950  "  "  " 

(1.)  (2.)  (3.)  (4.) 

Carbonate  of  lime,  53.50  52.66  51.78  52.80 
Carbonate  of  magnesia,  43.05  37.53  36.80  37.00 
Alumina,  iron  and  silicious  residue,  2.95  4.15  4.89  

The  beds  immediately  underlying  this  magneaian  portion  of  the  stra- 
tum are  found  by  analysis  to  have  a  composition  similar  to  that  noted  in 
the  outcrops  of  the  rock  in  the  Ohio  Valley.  They  generally  contain 
75  to  85  per  cent,  of  carbonate  of  lime,  and  ten  to  twenty  per  cent,  of  im- 
purities. The  thickness  of  the  Trenton  limestone  proper,  as  it  appears  in 
outcrop  in  the  rocks  of  central  Kentucky,  is  given  by  the  geologists  of 
that  State  as  175  feet.  It  is  immediately  underlaid,  in  this  region,  by  two 
other  limestones,  viz.,  the  Birdseye  and  the  Chazy,  which  have  a  thickness 
respectively  of  130  and  300  feet ;  the  entire  set  of  unbroken  limestones, 
including  the  Trenton,  being  thus  about  six  hundred  feet  in  thickness. 

It  is  altogether  probable  that  these  three  limestones  constitute  the 
solid  mass  which  the  drill  has  so  often  penetrated  in  Ohio  within  the 
last  few  years  to  a  depth  of  five  or  six  hundred  feet.  The  formations 
which  the  geologist  separates  when  they  rise  to  the  surface,  are  counted  by 
the  driller  as  a  single  limestone,  for  which  he  needs  no  other  name  than 
Trenton.  The  several  divisions,  however,  are  found  to  vary  somewhat  in 
grain,  in  color  and  in  chemical  composition.  Below  this  great  limestone, 
a  sandstone  more  or  less  calcareous  is  reported  in  many  of  our  deep  wells. 
This  is  probably  on  the  horizon  of  the  St.  Peter's  sandstone  of  the  north- 
west and  very  likely  deserves  to  be  called  by  this  name.  It  is  forty  to 
sixty  feet  thick  as  generally  found,  and  is  charged  with  the  rank  salt 
and  sulphur  water,  which  is  known  as  Blue  Lick  water,  though  water  of 
the  same  grade  is  sometimes  found  in  or  between  the  limestones  above 
named.  Still  deeper,  impure  magneeian  limestones  again  occur  for  the 
next  one  thousand  feet,  as  shown  in  the  deep  wells  of  Springfield  and 
Dayton.  These  beds  must  be  referred  to  the  Calciferous  peiiod  of  the 
general  scale.  To  the  question  so  often  asked,  "  How  thick  is  the  Trenton 


14  GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO. 

limestone  ?  "  it  is  thus  seen  that  it  is  not  easy  to  give  a  positive  answer  on 
account  of  the  ambiguity  of  the  term  as  it  is  popularly  used.  The  interest 
of  the  question  centers  in  those  portions  of  the  limestone  that  yield  gas 
and  oil,  and  in  regard  to  this  it  can  be  stated,  that  no  portions  of  the 
stratum  more  than  a  hundred  feet  below  the  top  have  thus  far  proved 
productive. 

2.    THE  UTICA  SHALE 

The  immediate  cover  of  the  Trenton  limestone,  from  which  it  de- 
rives its  name,  is  a  well  known  stratum  of  black  shale,  three  hundred  to 
seven  hundred  feet  in  thickness,  which,  from  its  many  outcrops  in  the 
vicinity  of  Utica,  New  York,  received  from  the  New  York  geologists  the 
name  of  Utica  shale. 

This  stratum  has  proved  to  be  very  persistent  and  wide- spread.  It 
is  sparingly  fossiliferous,  but  several  of  the  forms  that  it  contains  are 
characteristic,  that  is,  they  have  thus  far  been  found  in  no  other  stratum. 
The  first  of  the  deep  wells  that  was  drilled  in  1884  in  Findlay  revealed 
at  a  depth  of  800  feet,  a  stratum  of  black  shale  containing  the  most 
characteristic  fossil  of  the  Utica  shale,  and  it  was  thus  positively  identi- 
fied with  the  last  named  formation.  This  bed  of  shale  has  the  normal 
thickness  of  the  Utica  shale  in  New  York,  viz.,  300  feet,  and  with  the  other 
elements  involved,  it  extended  and  continued  the  New  York  series  into 
northern  Ohio  in  a  most  unexpected,  and  at  the  same  time,  in  a  most 
satisfactory  way. 

The  Utica  shale,  thus  discovered  and  defined,  is  a  constant  element 
in  the  deep  wells  of  north-western  Ohio.  Its  upper  boundary  is  not 
always  distinct,  as  the  Hudson  River  shale  that  overlies  it  sometimes 
graduates  into  it  in  color  and  appearance;  but  as  a  rule,  the  driller, 
without  any  geological  prepossessions  whatever,  will  divide  the  well 
section  in  his  record  so  as  to  show  about  300  feet  of  black  shale  at  the 
bottom  of  the  column  or  immediately  overlying  the  Trenton  limestone. 
This  stratum  holds  its  own  as  far  as  the  southern  central  counties.  In 
the  wells  of  Springfield,  Urbana  and  Piqua,  it  is  found  in  undiminished 
thickness,  but  apparently  somewhat  more  calareous  in  composition. 
From  these  points  southward,  the  black  shale  thins  rapidly.  It  is  ap- 
parently replaced  by  dark  colored  limestone  bands  known  as  pepper 
and  salt  rock  by  the  driller.  No  great  falling  off  in  black  shale  appears 
in  the  Dayton  well,  but  at  Middletown  the  driller  reported  a  sharp 
boundary  between  fgray  shale  310  feet  thick,  and  black  shale  100  feet 
thick — the  latter  directly  overlying  the  Trenton  limestone.  At  Hamil- 
ton the  same  driller  reported  the  boundary  still  distinct,  but  the  black 
shale  was  here  reduced  to  37  feet,  according  to  his  record. 


GEOLOGICAL  SCALE  AND  STRUCTURE.  15 

From  these  and  similar  facts  it  appears  that  the  Utica  shale  is  much 
reduced  and  altered  as  it  approaches  the  Ohio  Valley,  and  is  finally  lost 
by  overlap  of  the  Hudson  River  shale  in  this  portion  of  the  State  and  to 
the  southward. 

3.     THE  HUDSON  RIVER  GROUP. 

The  very  important  and  interesting  series  now  to  be.  described 
appears  in  all  the  previous  reports  of  the  Geological  Survey  under 
another  name,  viz.,  the  Cincinnati  group.  It  is  unnecessary  to  review 
here  the  long  discussions  pertaining  to  the  age  of  this  series,  or  the 
grounds  on  which  the  changes  in  the  name  by  which  it  is  known  have 
been  based.  The  return  to  the  older  name  here  proposed,  is  necessitated 
by  the  discoveries  recently  made  in  our  underground  geology,  to  which 
reference  has  already  been  made.  So  long  as  the  Utica  shale  was  held 
to  be  included  in  the  section  at  Cincinnati  but  without  distinct  or 
recognizable  boundary,  so  long  could  the  maintainance  of  the  name 
Cincinnati  group  be  justified.  It  was  held  to  cover  two  divisions  of 
geological  history  which  were  practically  inseparable,  and  therefore  the 
name  of  either  would  be  inapplicable  to  the  compound  series ;  but  since 
it  has  been  demonstrated  or  at  least  made  highly  probable,  that  the 
Utica  shale  forms  either  no  part,  or  but  a  very  small  part,  of  the  section 
at  or  near  Cincinnati,  there  is  no  longer  any  reason  for  continuing  the 
name  Cincinnati  group.  It  becomes  a  synonym  and  must  be  rejected 
as  unnecessary  and  indefensible 

The  Hudson  River  group  in  southwestern  Ohio  consists  of  alternat- 
ing beds  of  limestone  and  shale,  the  latter  of  which  is  commonly  known 
as  blue  clay.  The  proportion  of  lime  and  shale  vary  greatly  in  different 
parts  of  the  series.  The  largest  percentage  of  shale  occurs  in  the  250 
feet  of  the  series  that  begin  50  or  75  feet  above  low  water  at  Cincinnati. 
The  entire  thickness  of  the  series  in  south-western  Ohio  is  about  750  feet. 
The  division  of  the  series  into  lower  and  upper  is  natural  and  service- 
able. The  lower  is  known  as  the  Cincinnati  division  and  the  upper  as 
the  Lebanon  division.  The  Cincinnati  division  has  a  thickness  of  425 
to  450  feet,  and  the  Lebanon  division  a  thickness  of  about  300  feet.  The 
divisions  are  separated  on  both  paleontological  and  stratigraphical 
grounds.  Both  divisions  abound  in  exquisitely  preserved  fossils  of 
Lower  Silurian  time ;  and  in  fact  the  hills  of  Cincinnati  and  its  vicinity 
have  become  classical  grounds  to  the  geologist  on  this  account. 

As  the  series  takes  cover  to  the  northward  and  eastward  it  retains 
for  a  time  the  same  characteristics  already  described,  but  as  it  is  followed 
further  it  rapidly  becomes  less  calcareous.  The  limestone  courses  are 


1 6  GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO. 

thinner  and  fewer,  and  inasmuch  as  they  resist  or  delay  the  drill  but 
little  in  its  descent,  the  entire  series  comes  to  be  counted  shale.  One 
other  fact  needs  to  be  mentioned.  The  shale  at  certain  points,  and 
especially  on  the  western  border,  often  grows  dark  in  color  so  that  the 
boundary  between  this  and  the  underlying  Utica  division  is  somewhat 
obscure.  The  entire  interval  in  such  circumstances  may  pass  with  the 
driller  as  black  shale.  The  shales  of  this  series  are  thinnest  in  this  part  of 
the  State,.the  entire  measure  running  as  low  as  300  feet,  or  even  less.  To 
the  eastward  the  greenish  blue  element  already  named,  is  always  found 
and  the  shales  also  thicken  considerably  in  this  direction.  The  Hudson 
River  shales  are  fossiliferous,  as  the  fragments  of  corals  and  shells  brought 
up  in  the  drillings  abundantly  testify.  A  few  of  the  fossils  are  identifiable. 

The  Hudson  River  group  occupies  in  its  outcrop  about  4,000  square 
miles  in  southwestern  Ohio,  but  it  is  doubtless  coextensive  with  the 
limits  of  the  State.  The  shales  of  the  series  contain  in  outcrop  large 
quantities  of  phosphates  and  alkalies,  and  the  soils  to  which  they  give 
rise  are  proverbial  for  their  fertility. 

The  presence  of  these  fine-grained  and  impervious  shales  in  so 
many  separate  beds  forbids  the  descent  of  water  through  the  formation. 
In  its  outcrop  the  formation  has  no  water  supply,  and,  as  found  by  the 
driller,  it  is  generally  dry.  It  gives  rise  to  frequent  u  blowers  "  or  short- 
lived accumulations  of  high-pressure  gas  when  struck  by  the  drill,  as 
has  been  found  in  the  experience  in  many  towns  of  western  Ohio  within 
the  last  two  years,  and  it  also  yields  considerable  amounts  of  low-pres- 
sure shale  gas,  which  has  proved  fairly  durable. 

4.    THE  MEDINA  SHALE.  • 

A  stratum  of  non-fossiliferous  shale,  often  red  or  yellow  in  color  and 
having  a  thickness  of  ten  to  forty  feet,  directly  overlies  the  uppermost  beds 
of  the  Hudson  River  group  at  many  points  of  outcrops  in  southwestern 
Ohio.  The  occurrence  of  50  to  150  feet  of  red  shale  in  most  of  the  recent 
deep  borings  in  northwestern  Ohio  at  exactly  the  place  in  the  general 
column  where  the  Medina  should  be,  and  so  much  nearer  to  the  known 
outcrops  of  the  formation  that  its  continuity  with  these  was  hardly  to  be 
questioned,  this  fact,  taken  in  connection  with  the  occurrence  of  like 
beds  of  red  shale  holding  the  same  relative  position  in  all  the  deep 
borings  in  the  central  portions  of  the  State,  gives  warrant  for  counting  the 
Medina  epoch  duly  represented  in  the  outcropping  strata  of  southwestern 
Ohio.  It  occurs  here  only  in  included  sections,  its  thin  and  easily  eroded 
beds  never  being  found  as  surface  formations  for  extensive  areas.  There  is 
good  reason  to  believe  that  the  Medina  formation  is  coextensive  with  the 


GEOLOGICAL    SCALE    AND   STRUCTURE.  17 

limits  of  the  State,  except  in  the  regions  from  which  it  has  already  been 
removed. 

The  red  color  of  the  shales  is  quite  persistent,  but  there  are  many 
well-records  in  which  this  color  does  not  appear.  This  is  especially  true 
in  Allen  county,  and  to  the  westward  and  northwestward  from  Lima. 
Blue  shales  alternate  with  the  red  in  the  eastern  sections.  In  the  western 
they  replace  the  latter.  Thin  beds  of  sandstone  are  found  in  the  Medina, 
especially  to  the  westward.  Small  pebbles  occur  in  some  of  these  beds. 

5.     THE  CLINTON  LIMESTONE. 

The  Clinton  group  of  New  York  appears  as  a  surface  formation  in 
Ohio  only  in  the  area  already  named.  It  forms  a  fringe  or  margin  of  the 
Cincinnati  group  through  eight  or  ten  counties,  rising  above  the  eoft  and 
easily  eroded  rocks  of  this  series,  and  of  the  previously  named  Medina 
shale  in  a  conspicuous  terrace.  It  is  every-where  a  well-characterized 
limestone  stratum.  It  is  highly  crystalline  in  structure,  and  is  susceptible 
of  a  good  polish.  In  some  localities  it  is  known  as  a  marble.  A  consider- 
able part  of  it,  and  especially  the  upper  beds,  are  almost  wholly  made  up 
of  crinoidal  fragments.  In  thickness,  it  ranges  between  ten  and  fifty  feet. 
Its  prevailing  colors  are  white,  pink,  red,  yellow,  gray  and  blue.  At  a  few 
points  it  is  replaced  by  the  hematite  ore  that  is  elsewhere  so  characteristic 
of  the  formation.  The  ore  is  generally  too  lean  and  uncertain  to  possess 
economic  value,  but  it  was  once  worked  for  a  short  time  and  in  a  very 
small  way  in  a  furnace  near  Wilmington,  Clinton  county. 

The  limestone  contains  a  notable  quantity  of  indigenous  petroleum 
throughout  most  of  its  outcrop,  but  the  only  valuable  accumulations  of  oil 
or  gas  that  have  been  found  in  it  thus  far  have  been  brought  to  our  knowl- 
edge since  1885.  It  is  the  source  of  the  low-pressure  gas  of  Fremont  (upper 
vein),  and  also  of  the  gas  at  Lancaster,  Newark  and  Hadley  Junction. 
In  a  few  instances  it  has  proved  itself  an  oil  rock.  A  well  near  Trombley, 
Wood  county,  drilled  to  this  horizon,  yielded  twenty  to  thirty  barrels 
of  oil  for  a  number  of  months,  the  oil  being  referable  .to  this  formation. 

Under  heavy  cover  and  particularly  in  the  new  gas  fields  named 
above,  beds  of  sharp  sandstone  are  interstratified  with  the  limestones. 
The  main  reservoir  of  the  Lancaster  gas  is  in  fact  a  sandstone. 

In  outcrop  the  stratum  is  quite  porous  as  a  rule,  and  the  water  that 
falls  upon  its  uncovered  portions  sinks  rapidly  through  them  to  the  under- 
lying shale  (Medina),  by  which  it  is  turned  out  in  a  well-marked  line  of 
springs. 

2        G. 


1 8  GEOLOGY    OF   OHIO. 

In  composition'^the  limestone,  in  its  outcrops  in  southern  Ohio,  is 
fairly'constant.  All  of  its  most  characteristic  portions  contain  eighty  to 
eighty-five  per  cent,  of  carbonate  of  lime,  and  ten  to  fifteen  per  cent,  of 
carbonate  of  magnesia.  At  a  few  points,  however,  it  is  found  as  the  purest 
carbonate  of  lime  in  the  State.  Under  cover,  to  the  northward,  it  is  much 
more  magnesian  in  composition,  being  indistinguishable  from  the  Niagara. 
It  also  becomes  shaly  and  changeable  in  character  at  many  points.  As  it 
becomes  shaly  the  thickness  is  much  increased. 

It  is  every-where  uneven  in  its  bedding,  being  in  striking  contrast  in 
this  respect  to  the  formations  below  it  and  also  above  it.  The  beds  are 
all  lenticular  in  shape,  and  they  extend  but  a  few  feet  in  any  direction. 
They  seldom  rise  to  one  foot  in  thickness. 

The  uneven  bedding,  the  crystalline  and  crinoidal  characters,  the 
high  colors,  and  particularly  the  red  bands  and  the  chemical  composition, 
combine  to  make  the  Clinton  limestone  an  exceedingly  well-marked  stra- 
tum throughout  southwestern  Ohio,  and  from  the  hints  yielded  by  the 
drill  in  northwestern  Ohio,  it  seems  to  have  something  of  the  same  char- 
acter there,  especially  so  far  as  color  is  concerned.  It  becomes  more  shaly 
andjj[much  thicker  to  the  eastward.  It  carries  bands  of  red  shale  almost 
universally  throughout  the  northern  central  and  central  parts  of  the  State. 

The  limestone  is  directly  followed  at  a  number  of  points  in  the  terri- 
tory occupied  by  it,  by  a  stratum  of  very  fine-grained,  bluish-white  clay, 
containing  many  fossils  distributed  through  it,  the  fossils  being  crystalline 
and  apparently  pure  carbonate  of  lime.  Some  of  them  are  characteristic 
of  the  formation  elsewhere,  while  others  are  known  only  in  this  bed.  A 
similar  bed  of  white  clay  is  reported  at  the  same  horizon,  by  the  drillers 
in  northern  Ohio,  and  the  drillings  show  the  presence  of  fossils  of  the  same 
characters.  This  clay  seam  can  be  designated  the  Clinton  clay,  but  it 
merges  in  and  is  indistinguishable  from  the  lowest  element  in  the  next 
group.  The  Clinton,  in  its  outcrops,  is  entirely  confined  to  southern 
Ohio. 

6.    THE  NIAGARA  GROUP. 

The  Clinton  limestone  is  followed  in  ascending  order  by  the  Niagara 
group,  a  series  of  shales  and  limestones  that  has  considerable  thickness  in 
its  outcrops,  and  that  occupies  about  3,000  square  miles  of  territory  in  Ohio 
as  a  surface  rock.  The  lowest  member  is  the  Niagara  shale,  a  mass  of 
light- colored  clays,  with  many  thin  calcareous  bands.  It  has  a  thickness  of 
100  feet  in  Adams  county,  but  it  is  reduced  rapidly  as  it  is  followed  north- 
ward, and  in  Clarke  and  Montgomery  counties  it  is  not  more  than  ten  or 
fifteen  feet  thick.  Still  further  to  the  northward,  as  appears  from  the 
records  of  recent  drillings,  the  shale  sometimes  disappears  entirely,  but  in 


GEOLOGICAL  SCALE  AND  STRUCTURE.  19 

the  great  majority  of  wells,  especially  in  Hancock  and  Wood  counties, 
it  is  a  constant  element,  ranging  from  five  to  thirty  feet.  Wells  are  often 
cased  in  this  shale,  but  a  risk  is  always  taken  in  doing  so,  as  water  is  liable 
to  be  found  in  the  underlying  Clintou  rocks. 

In  Montgomery,  Miami  and  Greene  counties  the  shale  contains  in 
places  a  very  valuable  building  stone,  which  is  widely  known  as  the  Day- 
ton stone.  It  is  a  highly-crystalline,  compact  and  strong  stone,  lying  in 
even  beds  of  various  thickness,  and  is  in  every  way  adapted  to  the  highest 
architectural  uses.  It  carries  about  ninety-two  per  cent,  of  carbonate 
of  lime.  The  Niagara  shale  is,  as  a  rule,  quite  poor  in  fossils.  It  is  appar- 
ently destitute  of  them  in  many  of  its  exposures. 

The  limestone  that  succeeds  the  shale  is  an  even-bedded,  blue  or  drab, 
magnesian  stone,  well  adapted'  at  many  points  to  quarrying  purposes.  It 
contains  many  characteristic  fossils  of  Niagara  age.  It  is  known  in 
•Ohio  by  various  local  names,  -derived  from  the  points  where  it  is  worked. 
There  are  several  subdivisions  of  it  that  are  unequally  developed  in  differ- 
ent portions  of  the  State.  Like  the  shale  below  it,  this  member  is  thickest 
in  southern  Ohio.  It  can  not  be  recognized  as  a  distinct  element  in  the 
northern  part  of  the  State  either  in  outcrop  or  in  drillings.  It  may  be  that 
its  horizon  is  not  reached  in  any  natural  exposures  of  the  formation  in 
this  part  of  the  State. 

The  uppermost  division  of  the  formation  is  the  Guelph  limestone, 
which  differs  very  noticeably  in  several  points  from  the  Niagara  lime- 
stone proper.  It  obtains  its  name  from  a  locality  in  Canada,  where  it 
was  first  studied  and  described.  It  has  a  maximum  thickness  in 
southern  Ohio  of  200  feet.  It  differs  from  the  underlying  limestone  in 
structure,  composition  and  fossils.  It  is  either  massive  or  very  thin- 
bedded,  rarely  furnishing  a  building  stone.  It  is  porous  to  an  unusual 
extent.  It  is  generally  very  light  in  color,  and  is  every-where  in  the  State 
nearly  a  typical  dolomite  in  composition.  It  yields  lime  of  great  excel- 
lence for  the  mason's  use. 

It  is  exceedingly  rich  in  fossils,  containing  a  large  number  that  are 
thoroughly  characteristic  of  the  formation. 

Unlike  the  previously  named  divisions  of  the  Niagara,  the  Guelph 
limestone  is  as  well  developed  in  northern  as  in  southern  Ohio  in  all 
respects.  Not  more  than  forty  feet  are  found  in  its  outcrops  here,  but 
the  drill  has  shown  several  times  this  amount  of  Niagara  limestone 
without  giving  us  all  of  the  data  needed  for  referring  the  beds  traversed 
to  their  proper  subdivisions.  What  facts  there  are  seem  to  point  to  the 
Guelph  as  the  main  element  in  this  underground  development  of  the 
formation  in  this  portion  of  the  State. 


GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO. 

The  Hillsboro  sandstone  is  the  last  element  in  the  Niagara  group. 
It  is  found  in  but  few  localities,  and  its  reference  to  the  Niagara  series  in 
its  entirety  is  not  beyond  question.  In  Highland  county  it  has  a  thick- 
ness of  thirty  feet  in  several  sections.  It  is  composed  of  very  pure, 
even-grained,  sharp  silicious  sand.  Other  deposits  of  precisely  the  same 
character  are  found  in  the  two  next  higher  limestones  of  the  scale  at 
several  points  in  the  State.  One  of  these  deposits  is  interstratified  with 
the  Waterlime  in  Scioto,  Wood  and  Lucas  counties,  and  others  are  im- 
bedded in  the  Corniferous  limestone  in  central  Ohio.  The  latter  have 
been  referred  to  the  Oriskany  period,  but,  strictly  speaking,  this  reference 
is  inadmissible,  inasmuch  as  normal  Corniferous  limestone  with  its  most 
characteristic  fossils  is  found  below  as  well  as  above  the  sandstone.  The 
subject  will  be  further  considered  on  a  succeeding  page. 

The  Hillsboro  sandstone  is  sometimes  built  up  above  all  the  beds  of 
the  upper  Niagara  limestone,  but  again,  it  is,  at  times,  interstratified  with 
the  beds  of  the  Guelph  division.  In  the  latter  case  it  is  itself  fossilifer- 
ous,  but  when  found  alone  it  seems  destitute  of  all  traces  of  life.  These 
sandstones  in  the  limestone  formations  suggest  in  their  peculiarities  a 
common  origin.  They  all  consist  of  unworn  and  nearly  perfect  crystals, 
in  considerable  part.  Their  occurrence  in  outcrops  becomes  a  matter  of 
interest  to  us,  now  that  we  are  called  to  interpret  the  varied  records  of 
deep  drillings  throughout  the  State.  What  would  otherwise  be  altogether 
anomalous  sections  may  be  rendered  intelligible  by  the  known  presence 
of  such  elements  in  our  series. 

The  Salina  Group. 

This  group  has  appeared  in  all  the  recent  sections  of  the  rocks  of 
the  State,  but  in  the  light  of  facts  recently  obtained,  it  can  no  longer  be 
counted  a  distinct  or  recognizable  element  in  the  Ohio  scale.  Newberry 
gave  it  the  place  it  has  lately  held  in  the  column,  and  assigned  to  it  a 
thickness  of  forty  feet.  To  it  he  referred  the  plaster  beds  of  the  Ottawa 
county  peninsula  and  certain  impure  limestones  of  Put-in-Bay  Island. 
He  also  recorded  the  disappearance  of  what  he  counted  the  same  stratum 
a  few  miles  south  of  the  lake  shore  in  a  shaly  bed  that  rests  immediately 
upon  the  Niagara  limestone. 

These  identifications  are,  however,  incompatible.  The  limestones  of 
Put-in-Bay  and  the  plaster  beds  of  the  peninsula  do  not  directly  overlie 
the  Niagara  limestone,  but  on  the  contrary  are  separated  from  it  by 
several  hundred  feet  of  the  brown,  even-bedded,  sparingly  fossiliferous 
magnesian  limestone  that  we  call  the  Lower  Helderberg  limestone  or 
Waterlime.  In  other  words,  the  plaster  beds  of  Gypsum  are  buried  in 


GEOLOGICAL  SCALE  AND  STRUCTURE.  21 

the  middle,  or  above  the  middle,  of  this  great  sheet  of  limestones,  instead 
of  being  planted  at  its  base.  The  reference  of  this  formation  to  the 
Salina  was  rendered  probable  at  the  time  from  the  fact  that  all  the  gyp- 
siferous  formations  of  New  York  were  then  counted  of  Salina  age.  It 
has  since  been  proved  by  Prof.  S.  G.  Williams,  of  Ithaca,  that  gypsum 
is  also  contained  in  the  Waterlime  of  central  New  York,  and  it  is  in  like 
situations  that  the  Ohio  quarries  are  found. 

The  Salina  period  is  an  important  one  in  the  New  York  scale,  a 
thousand  feet  of  deposits  being  credited  to  it,  and  there  are  probably 
some  deposits  in  Ohio  that  are  contemporaneous  with  it;  but  it  can  not 
be  the  gypsum  bearing  beds  of  Ottawa  county,  unless  it  is  made  to  take 
in  at  least  one-half  of  the  entire  formation  that  we  now  call  Waterlime. 
This  gypsiferous  series  proves  to  be  of  considerable  thickness  and  to  be 
wide-spread.  It  is  struck  in  scores  of  the  wells  that  are  being  drilled  in 
northern  and  central  Ohio.  In  Sandusky,  gypsum  was  found  in  quite 
pure  and  thick  beds,  through  several  hundred  feet  of  the  strata  through 
which  the  drill  passed,  and  in  the  deep  well  at  Cleveland  both  rock-salt 
and  gypsum  (anhydrite)  were  found  in  considerable  deposits.  Salt- 
beds  of  considerable  thickness  have  also  been  recently  discovered  at  a 
depth  of  2,650  feet  at  Wadsworth,  Medina  county.  Small  deposits  of  gyp- 
sum, also,  have  been  found  in  the  deep  wells  of  Columbus,  Newark,  and 
many  other  towns.  Salt  and  gypsum  are  geological  accidents,  and  can 
not  well  be  used  in  determining  the  geological  order  of  regions  that  are 
separated  by  intervals  of  hundreds  of  miles. 

The  reference  of  distinct  portions  of  our  geological  scale  to  the 
Salina  period  must  accordingly  be  discarded  for  the  present,  at  least. 

7.     THE  LOWER  HELDEEBERG  OR  WATERLIME  FORMATION. 

The  interval  that  exists  between  the  Niagara  and  the  Devonian 
limestones  is  occupied  in  Ohio  by  a  very  important  formation.  This  for- 
mation was  first  separated  from  the  previously  undivided  mass  of  the  Cliff 
limestone  by  Newberry  in  1869.  He  found  and  identified  its  fossils,  and 
showed  by  means  of  them,  and  by  the  position  of  the  stratum  in  our 
series,  that  the  rocks  of  this  interval  are  the  equivalents,  in  part  at  least, 
of  the  Waterlime  of  the  New  York  scale.  The  Waterlime  of  New  York 
is  classed  by  most  geologists  with  the  Lower  Helderberg  series ;  but  Hall 
counts  it  the  upper  member  of  the  Salina  Group,  a  reference  that  seems 
likely  to  be  ultimately  considered  the  true  and  proper  one. 

The  name  is  unhappily  chosen.  Strictly  applicable  to  only  an  insig- 
nificant fraction  of  the  beds  of  this  series  in  New  York,  we  are  still  obliged 
to  apply  the  designation  Waterlime,  with  its  misleading  suggestions,  to 
all  deposits  of  the  same  age  throughout  the  country. 


22  GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO. 

Though  the  last  to  be  recognized  of  our  several  limestone  formations, 
the  Waterlime  occupies  a  larger  area  in  Ohio  than  any  other,  its  principal 
developments  being  found  in  the  drift  covered  plains  of  the  northwestern 
quarter  of  the  State.  It  has  also  a  much  greater  thickness  than  any  other 
limestone,  its  full  measure  being  at  least  600  feet,  or  twice  the  greatest 
thickness  of  the  Niagara  limestone. 

It  can  be  described  as,  in  the  main,  a  strong,  compact,  magnesian 
limestone,  poor  in  fossils,  and  often  altogether  destitute  of  them  for  con- 
siderable areas,  microscopic  forms  being  excepted.  It  is,  for  the  most  part, 
drab  or  brown  in  color ;  but  occasionally  it  becomes  very  light-colored, 
and  again  it  is  often  dark  blue.  It  is  brecciated  throughout  much  of  its 
extent,  the  beds  seeming  to  have  been  broken  into  sometimes  small  and 
sometimes  large  angular  fragments  after  their  hardening,  and  then  to 
have  been  recemented  without  further  disturbance.  In  addition  to  this, 
it  contains  an  immense  amount  of  true  conglomerate,  the  pebbles,  many 
of  which  are  bowlders  rather  than  pebbles,  being  all  derived  from  the 
rocks  of  the  same  general  age.  The  surface  of  many  successive  layers  at 
numerous  points  are  covered  with  suncracks,  thus  furnishing  proof  of 
having  been  formed  in  shallow  water  near  the  edge  of  the  sea.  In  such 
localities,  the  beds  are  usually  quite  thin,  and  are  also  impure  in  composi- 
tion. In  these  respects,  it  suggests  the  conditions  of  the  Onondaga  Salt 
Group  of  New  York.  These  features  are  very  characteristic  ones.  A  rude 
concretional  structure  is  also  quite  distinctive  of  the  beds  of  this  age.  The 
Waterlime  in  Ohio  every-where  contains  petroleum  in  small  quantity 
which  is  shown  by  the  odor  of  freshly  broken  surfaces.  No  noteworthy 
accumulations  of  oil  or  gas  have  thus  far  been  found  within  it.  At  some 
points,  it  carries  considerable  asphalt,  distributed  through  the  rock  in 
shot-like  grains,  or  in  sheets  and  films.  Thin  streaks  of  carbonaceous 
matter  traversing  the  rock  parallel  to  its  bed  planes  are  one  of  the  con- 
stant marks  of  the  stratum  in  Ohio.  It  is  generally  thin  and  even  in  its 
bedding ;  but  in  some  localities  it  contains  massive  beds.  At  some  points, 
it  is  remarkable  for  its  evenness,  and  great  value  is  given  to  the  formation 
on  this  account,  when  combined  with  other  qualities  already  named.  It 
is  frequently  a  nearly  pure  dolomite  in  composition,  and  accordingly,  it 
yields  magnesian  lime  of  high  quality  and  is  extensively  burned  in  the 
State,' rivaling  in  this  respect  the  Guelph  beds  of  the  Niagara. 

In  southern  Ohio,  it  has  a  maximum  thickness  of  100  feet,  and  here 
it  reaches  its  highest  quality  in  all  respects;  but  in  central  and  northern 
Ohio  it  attains  the  great  thickness  previously  reported.  There  also,  it 
contains  several  distinct  types  of  limestone  rock.  A  considerable  part  of 
it^is  very  tough,  strong,  dark  blue  limestone,  while  other  portions  are 
white,  porous  and  soft. 


GEOLOGICAL    SCALE    AND    STRUCTURE. 


23 


The  line  of  junction  between  the  Niagara  and  Waterlime  is  some- 
times obscure,  and  no  means  are  at  hand  for  drawing  sharp  lines  of 
division. 

All  that  has  been  thus  far  said  applies  mainly  to  the  formation  as 
found  in  outcrop ;  but  well-reamings  brought  up  from  considerable 
depths  at  various  points  in  the  State  render  it  certain  that  the  principal 
features  now  given  mark  the  formation  below  ground,  as  well  as  above. 
There  is  no  reason  to  doubt  that  the  Waterlime  has  as  wide  a  distribution 
in  the  subterranean  geology  of  Ohio  as  the  formations  already  described. 
It  is  to  be  found  in  every  part  of  the  State  in  which  it  is  due. 

This  formation  has  come  into  new  prominence  through  the  revela- 
tions of  the  drill  within  the  last  few  years.  In  regard  to  no  other  element 
in  the  series  have  the  geologists  been  so  wide  of  the  mark  as  in  regard 
to  the  Lower  Helderberg  formation.  What  belongs  to  it  was  taken  from 
it  and  given  to  a  stratum  that  has  no  existence  in  the  State ;  and  it  was 
credited  with  but  one -sixth  of  its  real  thickness.  Its  outcrops  ought  to 
have  shown  that  it  has  a  greater  thickness  than  was  assigned  to  it,  since 
it  covers  several  scores  of  miles  in  an  east  and  west  line.  It  demands  a 
large  amount  of  additional  investigation  to  put  it  in  order ;  and  to  secure 
such  a  mastery  of  it  as  to  be  able  to  determine  from  an  inspection  of  any 
outcrop  what  place  it  holds  in  the  general  series  will  be  a  valuable  service 
to  the  geology  of  the  State.  Winchell  established  approximately  one 
horizon  in  it  which  promises  to  be  of  some  service,  namely,  the  horizon 
of  the  Tymochtee  Slate,  a  bed  of  dark  blue  shaly  limestone  that  is  found 
in  outcrop  in  the  Tymochtee  Creek  near  Carey,  W^yandot  county.  It  is 
below  the  middle  of  the  formation  and  probably  within  100  to  200  feet  of 
the  Niagara  limestone.  A  few  other  facts  can  be  added  that  bear  upon 
the  same  point.  The  excessively  hard  and  strong  dark  blue  impure  lime- 
stone of  Allen,  Hardin  and  Hancock  counties  and  some  adjoining  regions, 
which  often  has  its  surface  conspicuously  marked  with  suncracks,  belongs 
to  the  middle  portion  of  the  formation,  but  probably  rather  above  than 
below  the  middle.  A  single  other  element  remains  to  be  inserted  in  the 
Lower  Helderberg  column,  the  interpolation  of  which  at  this  point  will 
occasion  surprise  to  all  who  are  conversant  with  the  older  statements  in 
regard  to  our  geological  scale. 

The  Sylvania  Sandstone. 

A  remarkable  deposit,  or  rather  series  of  deposits,  of  extremely  pure 
glass  sand  has  long  been  known  in  Lucas  and  Wood  counties  of  northern 
Ohio  and  in  adjacent  territory.  The  two  best  known  deposits  are  those 
of  Sylvania  and  Montclova,  which  respectively  lie  ten  miles  northwest 


24  GEOLOGY   OF    OHIO. 

and  west  of  Toledo.     Other  similar  deposits  are  known  in  Wood  c 

and  it  is  probable  that  the  sand  deposits  of  Monroe  county,  Michigan, 

belong  to  the  same  horizon. 

The  sandstone,  twenty  or  more  feet  in  thickness,  seen  in  the  Sylva 
nia  quarries,  rests  upon  beds  of  normal  Waterlime,  which  are  exposed  a 
few  rods  to  the  eastward.  The  rocks  are  sharply  inclined  here,  descend- 
ing in  an  almost  due  west  direction,  at  the  rate  of  one  foot  in  seven. 
The  rocks  overlying  the  sandstone,  as  seen  in  extensive  quarries,  are 
unmistakable  Waterlime,  containing  all  the  characteristic  marks  of  the 
formation,  its  chemical  composition,  its  bedding,  its  bituminous  charac- 
ter and  its  fossils.  Further  on,  the  conglomerate  phase  of  the  Waterlime 
appears.  There  is  nothing  in  the  whole  formation  more  characteristic 
than  this.  At  the  end  of  the  series,  80  rods  to  the  westward  from  the 
sandstone  quarry,  a  few  feet  of  undoubted  Corntferous  limestone  occur, 
rich  in  the  fossils  of  the  formation  and  true  to  its  chemical  composition. 
All  this  is  absolutely  decisive  as  to  the  age  of  the  sandstone.  It  lies 
nearly,  or  quite  two  hundred  feet  below  the  Corniferous  limestone. 

The  Monclova  or  Holland  sandstone  occupies  the  same  position  in 
the  series  as  the  Sylvania  sandstone  does.  The  Grand  Rapids  sandstone, 
of  Wood  county,  probably  belongs  to  the  same  horizon.  It  is  probably 
the  Sylvania  sandstone  that  appears  in  the  thirty-foot  bed  of  sharp  and 
pure  sand  that  has  been  reached  in  the  deep  wells  of  Cleveland  within 
the  last  four  yeare,  at  a  depth  of  about  two  thousand  feet  from  the  sur- 
face and  under  the  cover  of  three  hundred  feet  of  limestone.  At  least  the 
sandstone  found  at  this  level  is  of  very  much  the  same  character  as  that 
found  in  the  Sylvania  quarries. 

That  there  is  another  sandstone  of  character  similar  to  that  of  the 
Sylvania  sand,  included  in  the  Corniferous  limestone,  is  beyond  question. 
This  formation  will  be  treated  in  the  next  section.  The  Sylvania  sand 
can  henceforth  be  counted  an  Upper  Silurian  sandstone  and  a  part  of  the 
Lower  Helderberg  series.  Whether  the  sandstone  beds  of  Champaign 
and  Logan  counties  are  all  to  be  referred  to  one  horizon  remains  to  be 
determined  by  further  study. 

8.     THE  UPPER  HELDERBERG  LIMESTONE 

All  of  the  limestone  of  Devonian  age  in  Ohio  has  been  referred  by 
Newberry  to  the  Corniferous  limestone,  and  this  term  is  in  general  use  at 
the  present  time.  It  may  be  questioned  whether  it  is  wise  to  break  in 
upon  this  use,  but  inasmuch  as  several  geologists  hold  that  the  Devonian 
limestone  of  Ohio  covers  more  than  the  simple  epoch  known  as  the  Cor- 
niferous in  New  York,  a  more  comprehensive  term,  viz,,  the  Upper 


GEOLOGICAL    SCALE    AND    STRUCTURE.  25 

Helderberg  limestone,  is  on  the  whole  counted  preferable.  A  twofold 
division  of  the  series  is  possible  and  proper  in  Ohio,  the  division  being 
based  on  lithology  and  fossils.  The  divisions  are  known  as  Lower  and 
Upper  Corniferous,  or  as  Columbus  and  Delaware  limestones.  For  the 
upper  division,  the  term  Sandusky  limestone  is  sometimes  used.  In  central 
Ohio,  at  a  few  points,  there  is  a  marked  contrast  between  the  lower  and 
the  upper  beds,  the  latter  being  thin  and  shaly,  non-fossiliferous  in  the 
main,  and  interrupted  with  frequent  courses  of  black  flint.  This  phase 
is  seen  at  the  State  quarries  near  Columbus.  Generally,  however,  both 
divisions  are  calcareous  and  fossiliferous,  and  the  differences  consist  in 
changes  of  color  and  composition,  in  thickness  of  the  several  beds  and  in 
the  distribution,  and  also  in  the  kinds  of  fossils  present. 

The  maximum  thickness  of  the  Upper  Helderberg  series  in  Ohio,  so 
far  as  present  records  show,  is  75  to  100  feet. 

Included  in  the  lower  beds  of  the  limestone  there  are,  at  many 
points,  deposits  of  sharp  sand  of  the  same  character  as  the  deposits 
already  described  under  the  names  of  Hillsborough  sandstone  and  Syl- 
vania  sandstone  These  beds  may  bs  known  as  the  West  Jefferson 
sandstone,  one  of  the  localities  at  which  the  sand  is  found  being  near 
this  village.  This  Upper  Helderberg  sandstone  is  not  Oriskany  in  age. 
It  nowhere  underlies  the  Corniferous  limestone,  but  is  always  underlain 
by  it  and  interstratified  w.ith  it,  at  least  where  its  place  in  the  series  can 
be  determined.  It  attains  a  thickness  of  but  few  feet  at  most,  and  is 
nowhere  worked  for  economic  uses  except  upon  the  smallest  scale. 

In  chemical  composition,  the  Corniferous  limestone  is  easily  distin- 
guished from  all  that  underlie  it.  It  is  much  less  magnesian  than  the 
other  members  of  the  Cliff  limestone  of  Ohio,  already  described.  It  is 
never  a  true  dolomite  in  composition,  as  the  Waterlime  and  Niagara 
limestones  almost  always  are.  The  carbonate  of  magnesia  ranges  in  it 
from  two  to  thirty-five  per  cent.,  reaching  the  latter  figure  in  but  few 
cases.  The  composition  of  the  typical,  heavy-bedded  lower  Corniferous 
may  be  taken  as  seventy- per  cent,  carbonate  of  lime  and  twenty-five  per 
cent,  carbonate  of  magnesia.  The  higher  beds  of  the  Columbus  stone 
regularly  yield  ninety  one  to  ninety-five  per  cent,  carbonate  of  lime. 
The  upper  division,  or  the  Delaware  stone,  is  much  less  pure  in  central 
Ohio  than  the  lower,  a  notable  percentage  of  iron  and  alumina,  as  well 
as  silica,  generally  being  contained  in  it.  It  is,  therefore,  seldom  or  never 
burned  into  lime.  In  northern  Ohio,  on  the  contrary,  it  is  often  found 
a  fairly  pure  limestone. 

Both  divisions,  but  particularly  the  lower  one,  carry  occasional 
courses  of  chert,  that  detract  from  the  value  of  the  beds  in  which  they 
occur.  The  chert  is  found  in  nodules  which  are  easily  detached  from 


26  GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO. 

the  limestone  for  the  most  part.  In  some  conditions  in  which  the  chert 
occurs,  fossils  are  found  in  it  in  a  remarkably  good  state  of  preservation. 
The  percentage  of  chert  and  flint  in  any  section  would  be  considerable, 
and  this  fact  must  be  borne  in  mind  in  the  analysis  of  drillings  from 
bore  holes  that  penetrate  the  formation. 

The  beds  of  the  lower  division  are  prevailingly  light-colored,  ranging 
from  whitish  to  gray,  drab  and  brown.  The  upper  beds  are  oftener  blue 
than  otherwise. 

The  beds  of  the  lower  division  are,  as  a  rule,  much  thicker  than 
those  of  the  upper.  The  lowermost  courses  are  sometimes  quite  massive. 
In  the  State  quarries  they  are  not  less  than  five  feet  thick.  In  the  upper 
division  the  separate  courses  seldom  reach  a  thickness  of  one  foot. 

Throughout  the  entire  formation  Devonian  fossils  abound  in  great 
variety  and  in  great  numbers.  They  are  often  found  in  an  excellent 
state  of  preservation.  The  oldest  vertebrate  remains  of  the  Ohio  rocks 
are  found  in  the  Corniferous  limestone,  a  fact  which  gives  special  in- 
terest to  it.  The  uppermost  bed  of  the  lower  or  Columbus  division  is, 
in  many  places,  a  genuine  "  bone  bed  " ;  the  teeth  and  plates  and  spines 
of  ancient  fishes,  largely  of  the  nearly  extinct  family  of  ganoids,  consti- 
tuting a  considerable  portion  of  the  substance  of  the  rock.  Corals  of 
various  types  are  also  especially  abundant  and  interesting  in  this  lime- 
stone. In  fact,  the  formation  is  the  most  prolific  in  life  of  any  in  the 
Ohio  scale.  At  a  few  points  in  central  Ohio,  the  upper  division  has  been 
found  in  a  shaly  state  and  carrying  characteristic  fossils  of  the  Marcellus 
slate.  This  fact  was  first  noticed  in  its  true  significance  by  Whitfield. 

9.    THE  HAMILTON  OR  OLENTANGY  SHALE. 

Under  this  head  Newberry  has  recognized  fifteen  to  twenty  feet  of 
highly  fossiliferous  blue  shale,  intervening  between  the  Corniferous  lime- 
stone and  the  black  shale.  He  finds  it  at  only  one  or  two  points  in 
northern  Ohio,  and  notably  at  Prout's  Station,  seven  miles  south  of  San- 
dusky.  The  fossils  found  here  are  all  of  Hamilton  age,  unmingled  with 
those  of  the  underlying  Corniferous  limestone. 

On  stratigraphical  grounds  it  seems  probable  that  the  Olentangy  shale 
of  Professor  N.  H.  Winchell  is  the  extension  and  equivalent  of  New- 
berry's  Hamilton  shale.  The  Olentangy  shale  is  a  bed  of  blue  calcareous 
shale,  twenty  or  thirty  feet  in  thickness,  holding  exactly  the  position  of 
the  northern  Ohio  stratum,  but  it  is  almost  destitute  of  fossils.  It  is  found 
in  a  few  sections  of  three  or  four  counties  in  central  Ohio.  In  the  well- 
driller's  record  it  would  seem  likely  to  be  classed  with  the  limestone 
below  rather  than  with  the  black  shale  above,  and,  as  already  suggested, 


GEOLOGICAL   SCALE    AND    STRUCTURE.  2/ 

the  incorporation  of  this  element  might  easily  serve  to  expand  the 
measurement  of  the  limestone  by  a  small  amount. 

With  this  formation  the  great  limestones  of  Ohio  were  completed. 
While  they  are  built  into  the  foundations  of  almost  the  entire  State,  they 
constitute  the  surface  rocks  only  in  its  western  half.  The  Upper  Silurian 
and  Devonian  limestones  of  our  scale,  which  were  formerly  known  a» 
the  Cliff  limestone,  have  an  aggregate  thickness  of  750  to  1,150  feet  where 
found  under  cover,  and  though  differences  exist  among  them  by  which, 
as  has  already  been  shown,  they  can  be  divided  into  four  or  more  main 
divisions,  there  is  still  no  reason  to  believe  that  any  marked  change 
occurred  in  the  character  of  the  seas  during  the  protracted  periods  in 
which  they  were  growing.  The  life  which  these  seas  contained  was 
slowly  changing  from  age  to  age,  so  that  we  can  recognize  three  or  more 
distinct  faunas  or  assemblages  of  animal  life  in  them.  Differences  are 
also  indicated  in  the  several  strata  as  to  the  depth  of  the  water  in  which 
they  were  formed,  and  as  to  the  conditions  under  which  the  sedimentary 
matter  that  enters  into  them  was  supplied,  but  no  marked  physical 
break  occurs  in  the  long  history.  No  part  of  the  entire  series  indicates 
more  genial  conditions  of  growth  than  those  which  the  Devonian  lime- 
stone, the  latest  in  order  of  them  all,  shows.  It  is  the  purest  limestone  of 
Ohio.  Foot  after  foot  of  the  formation  consists  almost  exclusively  of  the 
beautifully  preserved  fragments  of  the  life  of  these  ancient  seas.  In 
particular  the  corals  and  crinoids  that  make  a  large  element  in  many  of 
its  beds  could  only  have  grown  in  shallow  but  clear  water  of  tropical 
warmth. 

The  change  from  the  calcareous  beds  of  this  age  to  the  next  succeed- 
ing formation  is  very  abrupt  and  well  marked,  as  much  so,  indeed,  as  any 
change  in  the  Ohio  scale. 

10.    THE  OHIO  SHALE. 

(Cleveland  Shale,  Erie  Shale,  Huron  Shale,  of  Newberry.) 

A  stratum  of  shale,  several  hundred  feet  in  thickness,  mainly  black 
or  dark  brown  in  color,  containing,  especially  in  its  lower  portions,  a 
great  number  of  large  and  remarkably  symmetrical  calcareous  and  fer- 
ruginous concretions,  and  stretching  entirely  across  the  State  from  the 
Ohio  Valley  to  the  shores  of  Lake  Erie,  with  an  outcrop  ranging  in 
breadth  between  ten  and  twenty  miles,  has  been  one  of  the  most  con- 
spicuous and  well-known  features  of  Ohio  geology  since  this  subject  first 
began  to  be  studied.  It  separates  the  great  limestone  series  already 
described,  which  constitutes  the  floor  of  all  of  western  Ohio,  from  the  Berea 
grit,  which  is  the  first  sandstone  reached  in  ascending  the  geological 


28  GEOLOGY   OF    OHIO. 

column  of  the  State,  and  which,  in  like  manner,  may  be  counted  the 
floor  of  all  of  eastern  Ohio.  By  the  geologists  of  the  first  survey  it  was 
designated  as  the  Shale  Stratum  or  the  Black  Slate.  It  will  be  treated  in 
this  report  under  the  designation  Ohio  shale.  Newberry  divided  it  into 
three  divisions,  which  he  named  respectively  the  Cleveland,  the  Erie  and 
the  Huron  shale.  He  based  the  separation  of  the  hitherto  undivided  mass 
in  part  upon  the  colors  of  the  proposed  divisions,  the  Cleveland  and  the 
Huron  being  counted  black  shales,  and  the  Erie  greenish-blue.  The 
names  Huron  and  Erie  were  unfortunately  chosen,  for  both  are  liable  to 
be  confounded  with  current  names  of  other  geological  formations.  The 
name  Huron  was  adopted  from  Winchell,  but  a  very  different  range  was 
assigned  to  it  from  that  which  its  author  originally  claimed.  Winchell's 
"  Huron  group  "  extends,  in  his  own  words,  from  the  top  of  the  Devonian 
limestones,  "  to  the  conglomerate  above  the  gritstones  of  Huron  county." 
It  is  thus  seen  to  include  Newberry's  Huron,  Erie,  Cleveland  and  Bedford 
shales,  together  with  the  Berea  grit  and  the  Cuyahoga  shale.  It  would 
have  served  the  interests  of  geological  classification  much  better  to  have 
replaced  the  term  altogether  than  to  have  thus  restricted  it  to  a  small 
fraction  of  what  it  was  originally  made  to  cover.  The  name  is  also  likely 
to  be  confused  with  the  Huronian  slates,  an  older  and  well-established 
division  of  the  Canadian  system  of  rocks. 

The  Erie  shale,  in  like  manner,  is  sure  to  be  confounded  with  the 
Erie  clay,  the  older  name  of  an  important  deposit  of  the  Glacial  epoch. 
Both  shale  and  clay  have  their  typical  exposures  in  the  same  localities, 
and  their  outcrops  are  not  dissimilar  in  appearance.  It  is  not  therefore 
surprising  that  the  names  should  be  confused  in  popular  use. 

But  aside  from  these  grounds  of  objection  to  the  particular  names 
employed,  the  classification  referred  to  is  itself  inconsistent  with  our 
present  knowledge  of  the  shale  formation.  We  have  records  by  the  score 
of  wells  drilled  through  the  shale  at  many  points  in  northern  Ohio  during 
the  last  few  years,  and  we  have  also  the  results  of  continued  study  of  the 
formation  in  its  outcrops.  The  facts  gathered  from  both  of  these  lines  of 
investigation,  not  only  fail  to  confirm  the  three-fold  division  above 
announced,  but  they  demonstrate  the  impossibility  of  applying  to  the 
shale  formation  any  system  of  classification  based  upon  the  color  of  the 
shales,  and  as  for  the  fossils  they  are  so  sparingly  distributed  that  they 
can  not  well  be  used  to  mark  horizons  in  the  formation,  aside  from  a  few 
that  wUl  be  mentioned  later. 

10a.     The  Lower  Beds — Huron  Shale. 

The  Huron  shale  was  defined  by  Newberry  as  a  homogeneous  mass 
of  black,  bituminous  shale,  200  to  350  feet  in  thickness,  directly  overlying 


GEOLOGICAL   SCALE    AND    STRUCTURE.  29 

the  limestone  series  already  described.  The  objection  to  this  definition  is 
that  there  is  no  such  mass  of  shale  in  Ohio.  The  mass  on  which  the 
main  statements  pertaining  to  the  Huron  rests,  and  which  furnishes 
nearly  all  of  the  examples  instanced,  is  the  shale  stratum  of  central  and 
southern  Ohio,  but  this  is  not  merely  the  bottom  portion  of  the  shale 
series  of  northern  Ohio.  It  comprises  all  of  the  elements  of  the  northern 
section.  In  other  words,  the  so-called  Huron  shale  of  central  Ohio  is  the 
Cleveland,  Erie,  Huron  shale  of  northern  Ohio.  It  is  not  a  homogeneous 
mass  <?f  black  shale,  as  it  is  commonly  counted,  but  beds  of  blue  or  green- 
ish-blue shale  are  frequently  interstratified  with  the  prevailing  black  beds, 
especially  in  the  middle  portion  of  the  series.  The  top  and  bottom  of  the 
column  are  generally  black  shale,  and  the  same  thing  is  true  in  northern 
Ohio.  These  facts  show  the  grounds  on  which  the  classification  now  re- 
ferred to  is  based,  but  the  objection  to  it  is  that  no  line  of  division  can  be 
drawn  between  the  Huron  and  Erie,  or  the  Erie  and  Cleveland  shales. 
The  records  of  many  drilled  wells  in  northern  Ohio  show  that  alternations 
of  black  and  blue  shale  recur  not  once  only,  but  many  times,  in  the 
formation. 

lOc.     The  Upper  Beds — Cleveland  Shale.  . 

The  Cleveland  shale  has,  it  is  true,  a  somewhat  better  chance  for  sur- 
vival as  a  distinct  division  than  the  Erie  or  Huron.  There  is  a  tolerably 
distinct  upper  boundary  for  it,  inasmuch  as  a  belt  of  back  shale  generally 
underlies  by  50  to  100  feet  the  Berea  grit,  by  far  the  best  landmark  in  this 
part  of  the  scale,  the  interval  being  occupied  by  the  Bedford  shale,  itself  a 
well  characterized  formation.  In  some  sections,  however,  there  is  no  black 
shale  at  the  point  where  the  Cleveland  shale  belongs,  and  in  all  sections 
the  lower  boundary  of  the  formation  is  likely  to  be  uncertain,  unless  the 
bottom  of  the  first  bed  of  black  shale  found  below  the  Berea  grit  is  in  every 
case  taken  for  the  bottom  of  the  Cleveland  division.  If  this  is  done,  the 
Cleveland  shale  must  stand  for  very  unequal  periods  of  geological  time,  as 
the  uppermost  black  bed  has  a  great  range  in  thickness.  It  often  falls  to 
thirty  feet  and  sometimes  exceeds  two  hundred  feet.  It  is  probably  the 
larger  half  of  the  great  black  shale  of  southern  Ohio.  It  is  this  element 
that  proves  most  persistent  in  the  southerly  extension  of  the  black  shale. 
The  shale  that  covers  the  Lower  Silurian  limestone  in  central  Kentucky 
is  the  upper  or  Cleveland  division,  as  its  most  characteristic  fossils,  pres- 
ently to  be  named,  prove. 

The  mineral  basis  of  all  these  shales,  whether  black,  brown,  blue, 
grey  or  red,  is  essentially  one  and  the  same  thing,  viz.,  a  fine-grained  clay, 
derived  from  the  waste  of  distant  land.  As  supplied  to  the  sea  basin,  it 
was  originally  blue  or  gray,  but  a  small  percentage  of  peroxide  of  iron  goes 


3O  GEOLOGY   OF    OHIO. 

a  great  way  in  coloring  such  deposits  red,  and  in  like  manner,  organic 
matter  in  comparatively  small  amount  fives  them  a  dark  or  black  color. 
The  organic  matter  that  colors  these  shales  was  probably  derived  in  large 
part,  as  Newberry  has  suggested,  from  the  products  of  growth  and  decay 
of  sea-weeds  by  which  these  seas  were  covered  like  the  Sargasso  seas  of 
our  own  days. 

These  organic  matters  seem  to  have  accumulated  along  the  shores  and 
is  -shallow  water  in  greater  quantity  than  in  the  deeper  seas.  Hence,  if 
the  section  of  these  shale  deposits  is  taken  near  the  old  shore- lines,  or 
where  shallow  water  occurred,  a  larger  proportion  is  black,  than  if  the 
more  central  areas  are  examined.  The  only  land  of  Ohio  at  this  time  was 
to  be  found  in  and  along  the  Cincinnati  axis,  a  low  fold  that  had  entered 
the  State  from  the  southward  at  the  close  of  Lower  Silurian  time,  and 
that  had  been  slowly  extending  itself  northwards  through  the  succeeding 
ages.  Southwestern  Ohio  was  already  above  water,  a  low  island  in  the 
ancient  gulf.  But  the  shales  on  their  western  outcrop,  where  they  are 
largely  black,  are  exactly  equivalent  in  age  to  the  alternating  beds  of  black 
and  blue  shale,  the  latter  being  in  large  excess,  that  were  forming  at  this 
time  in  the  central  parts  of  the  basin,  viz.,  in  eastern  Ohio.  The  color  of 
the  shales  is,  in  this  view,  an  accident,  and  can  not  be  safely  used  as  a 
ground  of  division.  The  entire  shale  formation  that  we  are  considering 
seems  to  have  been  laid  down  without  physical  break  or  interruption.  It 
must  have  required  an  immensely  long  period  for  its  accumulation.  This 
is  shown  not  only  by  the  fineness  and  uniformity  of  the  materials  which 
compose  it,  and  which  could  not  have  been  rapidly  supplied,  and  by  the 
great  thickness  of  the  formation  in  eastern  Ohio,  but  also  by  the  geological 
equivalents  of  the  shale  in  the  general  column  which  furnish  even  more 
convincing  proof  as  to  its  long  continued  growth.  The  Ohio  shale,  as 
Newberry  has  shown,  is  certainly  the  equivalent  in  the  general  scale  of  the 
Oenessee  slate,  the  Portage  group  and  the  Chemung  group,  the  last  named 
being  itself  a  formation  of  great  thickness  and  extent.  In  other  words, 
the  shales  of  our  column  bridge  the  interval  between  the  Hamilton 
proper  and  the  Catskill  group,  and  in  the  judgment  of  some  geologists  a 
wider  interval  even  than  that  named  above.  As  Newberry  was  the  first 
to  show,  the  oil  sands  of  Pennsylvania  are  banks  of  pebble  rock  that  are 
buried  in  the  eastward  extension  of  the  Ohio  shale,  but  which  make  no 
sign  within  our  own  limits. 

But  while  definite  boundaries  for  the  division  proposed  can  not  be 
laid  down  or  applied  within  the  shale  formation,  the  facts  that  the  top 
and  the  bottom  of  the  column,  on  their  western  outcrops,  are  prevail- 
ingly black,  and  that  the  middle  of  the  series  is  oftener  interrupted  with 
light-colored  beds  are  important  ones  in  the  history  of  the  formation  and 


GEOLOGICAL  SCALE  AND  STRUCTURE.  3! 

deserve  to  be  held  in  mind.  From  what  has  been  already  stated,  it  is 
seen  that  the  composition  and  thickness  of  the  shale  series  depend  on 
where  it  is  measured,  whether  on  the  border  of  the  formation  or  in  the 
interior  of  the  old  sea-basin  in  which  it  was  formed.  On  the  western 
border  of  the  shales  in  southern  Ohio,  in  Highland  county,  for  example, 
the  interval  between  the  Upper  Silurian  limestone,  on  which  the  shales 
here  rest  by  overlap,  and  the  Berea  grit  is  300  feet.  In  Ross  county,  the 
same  interval  is  nearly  400  feet.  From  both  of  the  measurements,  fifty 
feet  must  be  deducted  for  the  thickness  of  the  Bedford  shale  in  order  to 
give  the  real  thickness  of  the  series  now  under  consideration.  In  the 
sections  named  the  shales  are  mainly  black,  although  blue  beds  are  still 
recognizable  in  the  series.  Passing  northwards  to  Crawford  county,  the 
series  is  found  about  450  feet  thick.  In  Lorain  county,  at  Elyria,  it  is 
about  950  feet,  and  at  Cleveland  about  1,350  feet,  while  in  Tuscarawas 
county  the  drill  has  descended  through  1,860  feet  of  alternating  beds  of 
blue  and  black  shale  without  reaching  the  bottom  of  the  series,  and  in 
the  Ohio  Valley,  at  Wellsville,  through  2,600  feet  of  shales  without  reach- 
ing bottom.  In  the  last  two  sections,  the  blue  shales  decidedly  prepon- 
derate, though  the  separate  black  beds  can  be  counted  by  the  score. 

Fossils  of  the  Shales. 

The  shales  are  for  the  most  part  poor  in  fossils,  except  in  those  of 
microscopic  size.  Banks  representing  scores  of  feet  in  the  vertical 
column  often  fail  to  reward  the  most  careful  search  with  a  single  speci- 
men of  vertebrate,  molluscan  or  articulate  life,  and  so  far  as  the  unaided 
eye  is  concerned,  they  are  almost  equally  barren  of  vegetable  remains. 
Occasionally,  however,  fossiliferous  bands  are  found,  the  contents  of 
which  serve  to  determine  the  geological  age  and  equivalence  of  the 
portion  of  the  series  in  which  they  occur. 

A  calcareous  band  near  the  bottom  of  the  series  at  Bainbridge,  Ross 
county,  has  yielded  a  few  Hamilton  fossils.  A  band  of  similar  character 
near  Defiance,  'and  in  the  same  part  of  the  column,  yields  a  few  forms 
in  abundance,  but  not  in  a  very  good  state  of  preservation.  Newberry 
reports  from  northern  Ohio  a  number  of  forms  that  are  counted  charac- 
teristic of  the  Portgage  group  of  New  York. 

The  Erie  shale  of  Newberry,  embracing  the  central  and  most  of  the 
upper  portion  of  the  shale  column,  has  yielded  a  somewhat  larger  list  of 
fossils  at  a  few  points  in  northern  Ohio,  from  which  the  age  of  the  beds  is 
shown  to  be  Chemung,  a  determination  of  great  importance  in  Ohio 
geology.  In  higher  beds  of  the  same  blue  shale  there  are  found,  at  a  few 
points,  forms  that  are  referred  to  as  the  Sub-carboniferous.  Counting  this 


32  GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO. 

the  boundary  line  between  the  Devonian  and  Sub-carboniferous,  New- 
berry  took  what  he  deemed  the  first  identifiable  horizon  above  as  the 
base  of  the  last-named  division,  and  accordingly  drew  the  line  at  the  base 
of  the  so-called  Cleveland  shale.  This  boundary  is  not  a  definite  one.  as 
subsequent  investigations  have  shown,  but  the  top  of  the  upper  black,[or 
Cleveland  shale  would  answer  fairly  well  for  this  purpose.  It  is  the  first 
stratigraphical  mark  that  has  any  claims  to  persistency  above  the  beds 
that  hold  the  fossils  already  named.  The  fossils  of  the  black  shale 
proper  offer  no  serious  difficulty  in  the  way  of  extending  Devonian  time 
to  the  upper  limit  of  the  stratum,  and  this  boundary  is  consequently 
assumed  as  the  only  one  that  can  be  made  practically  serviceable. 

The  Cleveland  shale,  limiting  the  term  to  the  highest  bed  of  black 
shale  in  the  series,  and  which  is  about  fifty  feet  thick  at  various  points 
near  Cleveland,  contains  a  few  fossils,  most  of  which  are  quite  small,  but 
the  most  striking  and  remarkable  fossils,  at  once  of  the  shale  formation 
and  of  the  entire  scale  of  Ohio,  remain  to  be  named.  They  are  the  great 
fishes,  which  have  been  described  under  several  genera  and  species,  by 
Newberry.  Some  of  them  belong  to  the  basal  beds  of  the  black  shale 
(Huron),  and  others,  including  the  largest,  near  the  summit  (Cleveland). 
The  first  of  the  series  were  found  at  the  centers  of  the  great  concretions 
that  have  been  already  named  as  characteristic  of  the  formation.  The 
latter  are  also  found  in  the  uppermost  beds  of  the  formation  in  central 
Ohio,  proving  the  age  of  the  latter  to  be  the  same  as  that  of  the  upper 
beds  of  northern  Ohio. 

Brief  mention  mutt  be  made  of  the  vegetable  fossils  of  the  shales. 

Fossil  wood,  derived  from  ancient  pine  trees,  is  quite  common  in  the 
lower  beds  (Huron).  The  wood  is  silicified  and  the  original  structure  is 
admirably  preserved.  This  wood  is  sometimes  found,  like  the  fish  remains 
already  noted,  at  the  hearts  of  the  concretions,  but  occasionally  large  sized 
blocks  are  found  free  in  the  shale.  On  account  of  its  enduring  nature  it 
is  often  found  in  those  beds  of  glacial  drift  that  have  been  derived  largely 
from  the  destruction  of  the  shales. 

Strap-shaped  leaves,  presumably  of  sea-weeds,  are  occasionally  found 
upon  the  surfaces  of  the  shale  layers.  Sometimes  they  form  thin  layers 
of  bright  coal  which  deceive  the  ignorant.  Fossil  rushes,  of  the  genus 
Calamites,  are  also  occasionally  met  with. 

But  the  forms  already  named  are  of  small  account,  so  far  as  quantity 
is  concerned,  when  compared  with  certain  microscopic  fossils  that  are, 
with  little  doubt,  of  vegetable  origin,  and  which  are  accumulated  in  large 
amount  throughout  the  black  beds  of  the  entire  shale  formation,  compos- 
ing, sometimes  a  notable  percentage  of  the  substance  of  the  rock,  and 


GEOLOGICAL  SCALE  AND  STRUCTURE.  J3 

apparently  giving  origin,  to  an  important  extent,  to  the  bituminous 
character  of  the  beds. 

The  leading  forms  of  these  microscopic  fossils  are  translucent,  res- 
inous discs,  ranging  in  long  diameter  from  -^  to  -^^  of  an  inch.  Several 
varieties  have  already  been  noted,  depending  on  the  size,  particular  shape 
and  surface  markings  of  these  bodies. 

They  were  first  discovered  by  Mr.  B.  W.  Thomas,  an  expert  micro- 
scopist,  in  the  water-supply  of  Chicago,  which  is  derived  from  Lake  Michi- 
gan, and  Mr.  Thomas  afterwards  learned  that  they  were  washed  by  the 
water  from  the  bowlder  clays  that  compose  the  banks  and  bottom  of  the 
lake.  He  found  the  discs  present  in  fragments  of  black  shale,  and  also 
free  in  the  clay  which  was  derived  from  the  comminution  of  the  shale. 

They  were  afterwards  rediscovered  in  the  black  shale  of  Kettle  Point, 
Lake  Huron,  by  Professor,  now  Sir  William  Dawson,  who  published  a 
description  of  the  form  here  found  under  the  name  Sporangites  Huronemis. 
Sir  William  counted  them  at  this  time  the  spore-cases  of  some  lycopodia- 
ceous  tree. 

The  facts  pertaining  to  them  have  of  late  been  more  widely  published, 
and  the  attention  of  geologists  in  various  parts  of  the  world  has  been 
called  to  these  and  similar  forms,  and  thus  there  is  the  promise  of  a  speedy 
enlargement  of  our  knowledge  in  regard  to  them.  Sir  William  Dawson 
now  considers  the  common  forms  to  be  the  spore-cases  of  rhizocarps  allied 
to  Salvinia  of  the  present  day.  This  identification  would  refer  these 
bodies  to  floating  vegetation  on  the  surface  of  the  eeas  in  which  the  shales 
were  formed,  and  is  thus  directly  in  line  with  the  sagacious  interpretation 
of  Newberry,  who  many  years  ago  attributed  the  origin  of  these  black 
shales  to  Sargasso  seas. 

11.     THE  WAVERLY  GROUP. 

The  important  mass  of  sediments  of  Sub- carboniferous  age,  which  is 
known  in  Ohio  and  in  some  adjoining  States  as  the  Waverly  group,  comes 
next  in  the  column.  The  name  Waverly  was  given  to  these  strata  by  the 
geologists  of  the  first  survey,  from  the  fact  that  at  Waverly,  in  the  Scioto 
Valley,  excellent  sandstone  quarries  were  opened  in  them,  the  products 
of  which  were  quite  widely  distributed  throughout  central  and  southern 
Ohio,  as  far  back  as  fifty  years  ago.  Associated  with  the  sandstone  at  this 
locality,  and  every-where  throughout  the  district,were  several  other  strata 
that  were  always  counted  as  members  of  the  group  by  the  geologists  who 
gave  the  name.  In  fact,  the  boundaries  were  made  definite  and  easily 
applicable.  The  Waverly  group  extended,  by  its  definition  and  by 

unbroken  usage  in  our  early  geology,  from  the  top  of  the  great  black  shale 
3        G. 


34  GEOLOGY   OF    OHIO. 

(Cleveland  shale),  to  the  Coal  Measure  conglomerate.  This  latter  element 
was,  in  a  part  of  the  field,  confused  with  the  Waverly  conglomerate,  after- 
wards recognized  and  defined  by  Andrews,  until  a  recent  date,  it  is  true, 
but  the  intent  of  the  geologists  is  apparent,  and  many  of  their  sections 
were  complete  and  accurate.  If  the  term  Waverly  is  to  be  retained  in  our 
classification,  and  it  bids  fair  to  be,  every  interest  will  be  served  by  recog- 
nizing and  retaining  the  original  boundaries.  The  departure  from  them 
that  has  been  proposed  has  led  already  to  great  confusion.  To  make  the 
Cleveland  shale  the  base  of  the  Waverly  ia,  as  has  been  already  shown,  to 
turn  the  entire  shale  stratum  into  a  no-man's  land.  Aside  from  a  few 
sections  in  northern  Ohio,  where  an  arbitrary  limit  was  fixed  for  this 
upper  division,  there  is  no  place  in  the  State  where  a  line  can  be  drawn 
with  any  approach  to  certainty  between  Cleveland  and  Erie  or  between 
Erie  and  Huron.  The  plan  was  proposed  before  the  true  equivalence  of 
the  northern  and  southern  ends  of  the  column  had  been  established.  If 
the  fact  that  the  Cleveland  shale  of  northern  Ohio  forms  the  top  of  the 
great  shale  of  central  and  southern  Ohio  had  been  known,  certainly  no 
proposal  would  have  been  made  to  break  into  this  undivided  and  indi- 
visible series  which  had  been  held  to  underlie  the  Waverly  group  ever 
since  the  name  was  first  applied. 

lla.     The  Bedford  Shale. 

At  Waverly  and  in  its  vicinity,  numerous  sections  are  afforded  reach- 
ing from  the  black  shale  to  the  Waverly  sandstone  courses.  This  interval 
ranges  from  fifty  to  ninety  feet  in  thickness,  and  its  boundaries  are  gener- 
ally very  clear  and  distinct.  It  is  occupied  with  shales,  for  the  most  part 
light-blue  or  gray,  but  sometimes  reddened  with  peroxide  of  iron  in  the 
lower  portion.  The  latter  phase  is  seen  in  the  excellent  section  found  at 
Piketon.  These  shales  are  thin-bedded,  occasionally  interrupted  with 
fine-grained  sandstone  courses,  and  sometimes  carrying  very  ungainly 
nodular  masses  of  the  same  material,  apparently  shaped  by  a  rough  con- 
cretionary force.  The  beds  are  almost  entirely  destitute  of  fossils,  aside 
from  the  burrows  of  sea- worms,  which  are  found  on  the  surfaces  of  most 
of  the  layers,  and  often  with  great  sharpness  of  outline.  At  a  few  points, 
however,  fossiliferous  bands  containing  a  considerable  number  of  species 
are  found.  These  have  recently  been  pointed  out  by  Prof.  C.  L.  Herrick 
of  Cincinnati.  All  the  layers,  and  especially  the  upper  ones,  are  likely 
to  be  ripple-marked.  In  many  instances,  every  sheet,  for  many  successive 
feet,  is  marked  with  most  symmetrical  sculpturings  of  this  sort. 

This  stratum,  thus  definitely  characterized  and  bounded,  received 
the  name  of  the  Waverly  shale  in  the  reports  of  the  second  Geological 


GEOLOGICAL    SCALE    AND    STRUCTURE.  35 

Survey,  but  in  northern  Ohio  it  was  named  by  Newberry  the  Bedford 
shale,  the  equivalence  of  the  strata  not  being  at  that  time  recognized. 
The  latter  name  deserves  to  be  universally  accepted,  being  applied  to  a 
perfectly  distinct  and  homogeneous  formation.  The  stratum  has  precise- 
ly the  same  boundaries  in  northern  that  it  has  in  southern  Ohio,  viz.,  the 
top  of  the  great  black  shale  (Cleveland)  and  the  Berea  Grit,  and,  in  the 
main,  precisely  the  same  characteristics  throughout  its  whole  extent. 
The  description  of  the  stratum  at  Waverly  applies  to  it  at  every  other 
point,  except  that  in  northern  Ohio  at  a  few  localities,  and  especially 
about  Cleveland,  there  are  fifteen  to  twenty  feet  of  valuable  stone  inclu- 
ded in  it.  This  stone  is  even-bedded,  very  strong  and  durable,  and  it 
supplies  a  large  quantity  of  flaggings,  caps  and  sills,  of  the  best  grade.  It 
is  known  as  the  East  Cleveland,  Euclid  and  Independence  blue  stone. 
In  northern  Ohio,  more  of  the  formation  is  red-colored  than  in  southern, 
and  here  it  is  the  top  of  the  formation  rather  than  the  bottom  that  is 
thus  marked.  In  the  lower  beds  of  the  Bedford  shale,  fossils  are,  in 
northern  Ohio,  at  a  few  points,  abundant.  They  are  of  pronounced  Sub- 
carboniferous  character  according  to  Newberry's  determinations,  but 
Professor  Herrick  inclines  to  place  them  lower  in  the  scale.  None  of  these 
fossils  have  been  reported  south  of  the  lake  shore,  but  the  stratigraphical 
relations  ot  the  shale  are  so  clear  and  its  lithological  characteristics  so 
pronounced,  that  there  is  not  a  stratum  in  our  geological  column  that 
can  be  followed  across  the  State  in  more  easily  demonstrated  identity 
than  this. 

116.     The  Berea  Grit. 

We  have  reached  in  our  review  the  Berea  grit,  the  second  element  of 
the  Waverly  series,  and  not  only  the  most  important  member  of  the 
series,  but  by  far  the  most  important  single  stratum  in  the  entire  geo- 
logical column  of  Ohio.  Its  economic  value  above  ground  is  great,  but 
it  is  greater  below.  In  its  outcrops  it  is  a  source  of  the  finest  building 
stone  and  the  best  grindstone  grit  of  the  country,  and  when  it  dips 
beneath  the  surface  it  becomes  the  repository  of  invaluable  supplies  of 
petroleum,  gas  and  salt-water.  Its  persistence  as  a  stratum  is  phenom- 
enal. Seldom  reaching  a  thickness  of  fifty  feet,  its  proved  area  in^Ohio 
above  ground  and  below,  is  scarcely  less  than  15,000  square  miles,  and 
beyond  the  boundaries  of  Ohio  it  extends  with  continuity  and  strength 
unbroken  into  at  least  four  other  adjacent  States.  In  the  opinion  of  our 
best  stratigraphical  geologists  the  Berea  grit  becomes  the  famous  Murrays- 
ville  gas  sand  and  also  the  Gantz  oil  sand  of  Washington  county,  Penn- 
sylvania. As  a  guide  to  the  interpretation  of  our  series,  and  especially  as 
a  guide  in  our  subterranean  geology,  it  is  invaluable. 


36  GEOLOGY     OF     OHIO. 

The  stratum  was  named  by  Newberry  from  the  village  of  Berea, 
Cuyahoga  county,  where  the  largest  and  most  important  quarries  of  the 
formation  are  located.  The  name  is  the  most  appropriate  that  could 
have  been  selected  for  this  stratum,  and  inasmuch  as  it  has  priority  in  all 
fields,  it  ought  to  be  made  to  supersede  all  others. 

From  what  has  already  been  stated,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  Berea 
grit  and  the  Waverly  quarry-stone  of  southern  Ohio  are  one  and  the  same 
sheet  of  sandstone.  This  identity  was  missed  for  a  long  while  in  the 
study  of  our  geology,  and  a  wrong  order  of  arrangement  found  temporary 
acceptance.  The  resulting  dislocation  of  our  Sub-carboniferous  series 
brought  into  all  our  work  upon  it  an  element  of  confusion  that  is  scarcely 
yet  eliminated. 

The  Berea  grit,  as  seen  in  outcrop,  is  a  sandstone  of  medium  grain  in 
northern  Ohio  and  of  fine  grain,  from  the  center  of  the  State  south- 
ward. In  northern  Ohio,  it  contains  one  pebbly  horizon  over  a  consider- 
able area,  but  the  seam  is  thin  and  the  pebbles  are  small.  The  stratum 
is  sometimes  false-bedded  and  sometimes  remarkably  even  in  its  bedding- 
planes.  Its  main  beds,  or  sheets,  have  a  maximum  thickness  of  six  feet, 
but  this  is  an  unusual  measure  and  is  seldom  reached.  It  ranges  in 
thickness  from  5  to  170  feet,  and  it  very  rarely  fails  altogether  from  the 
sections  in  which  it  is  due. 

Like  the  Bedford  shale  below  it,  it  stands  for  an  old  shore-line,  many 
of  its  surfaces  being  ripple-marked  and  worm-burrows  abounding  in  its 
substance. 

It  is  poor  in  fossils,  but  not  entirely  destitute  of  them.  Fish  remains 
are  the  most  conspicuous,  but  by  far  the  rarest  of  the  forms  that  it  contains. 
Plant  impressions  are  also  unusual  through  most  of  the  formation,  but  in 
northeastern  Ohio  there  is  a  certain  part  of  the  stratum  in  which  they  are 
quite  abundant.  Throughout  the  great  quarry  district  the  material  of 
which  the  stratum  is  composed  is  as  clean  sand  as  can  be  found  on  any 
sea  beach.  It  grows  more  impure  as  its  sand  grows  finer  in  grain  in  cen- 
tral and  especially  in  southern  Ohio.  A  small  percentage  of  clay  is  held 
in  it  at  most  points. 

Under  cover  it  retains  the  same  characteristics  as  to  composition  that 
it  possesses  above  ground,  ranging  from  fine  to  middling  grain  and  very 
seldom  showing  pebbles.  It  has  been  proved  by  many  hundred  borings 
in  southeastern  Ohio  during  the  last  few  years,  and  its  composition  there 
is  almost  as  well  known  as  in  its  outcrops. 


GEOLOGICAL   SCALE    AND    STRUCTURE.  37 

lie.     The  Berea  Shale — Waverly  Black  Shale  of  Andrews. 

A  bed  of  dark,  often  black  shale,  fifteen  to  fifty  feet  in  thickness, 
makes  the  constant  and  immediate  cover  of  the  Berea  grit  throughout  its 
entire  extent  in  Ohio.  The  shale  is  highly  fossiliferous.  The  bottom 
layer,  which  is  especially  rich  in  fossils,  is  very  hard  and  stubborn,  being 
composed  of  sand  bound  together  with  pyrites.  It  is  often  referred  to  the 
sandstone  below  rather  than  to  the  shale  above,  but  its  fossils  and  its  bitu- 
minous character  favor  the  reference  here  given,  inasmuch  as  it  marks 
new  conditions  in  the  history  of  these  beds. 

The  stratum  was  first  described  by  Andrews  under  the  name  of  the 
Waverly  black  shale,  the  typical  outcrop  being  found  at  Rockport,  on  the 
Ohio  River,  but  about  the  same  time  Meek,  who  was  studying  its  fossils 
in  northern  Ohio,  introduced  the  designation  Berea  ehale.  (Pal.,  Ohio, 
Vol.  II,  Plate  XIV.)  The  latter  name  is  clearly  preferable  and  ought 
to  obtain  currency. 

In  southern  and  central  Ohio,  and  indeed  in  almost  all  of  its  outcrops, 
the  boundaries  of  the  Berea  shale  are  sharp  and  perfectly  distinct.  The 
Berea  grit  is  its  base,  and  the  blue  beds  of  the  Cuyahoga  shale  overlie  it. 
In  Cuyahoga  county,  however,  and  eastward,  the  upper  limit  cannot 
always  be  fixed  with  precision,  neither  the  dark  color  nor  the  fossils  of  the 
shale  disappearing  abruptly,  but  both  gradually  diminishing.  There  are, 
however,  twenty  to  forty  feet  that  always  deserve  to  be  counted  here. 

When  struck  by  the  drill  under  cover,  the  formation  uniformly  yields 
a  line  of  facts  similar  to  that  already  reported.  Of  the  records  of  the  many 
hundred  wells  that  have  been  carried  down  to  and  below  this  horizon  in 
southern  Ohio  and  in  adjacent  territory  during  the  last  few  years,  there 
has  not  a  single  one  been  found  that  has  failed  to  give  a  place  to  this  little 
band  of  black  shale.  Its  services  insetting  in  order  our  Sub-carboniferous 
geology  have  been  simply  invaluable.  It  is  apparently  wanting  at  a  few 
points  in  northern  central  Ohio.  At  least  some  of  the  drillers  who  have 
sunk  deep  wells  here  declare  that  they  have  found^no  trace  of  this  stratum. 

The  Berea  shale  contains  a  larger  percentage  of  bituminous  matter 
than  the  Ohio  shale,  the  amount  sometimes  reaching  24  per  cent.  It  is  a 
source  of  petroleum  on  a  small  scale,  as  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  in 
southern  Ohio  an  important  ledge  of  sandstone  that  belongs  just  above  it 
is  often  saturated  with  a  tar-like  oil,  derived  from  this  source. 

lid.     The  Cuyahoga  Shale. 

It  is  impossible  to  retain  for  this  great  division  of  the  Waverly  the 
limits  assigned  to  it  by  Newberry  when  he  gave  it  its  name.  He  made  it 
fill  the  entire  interval  between  the  Berea  grit  and  the  Coal  Measure  con- 


38  GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO. 

glomerate,  and  according  to  present  knowledge,  at  least  three  distinct  ele- 
ments are  to  be  found  in  every  normal  section  of  this  interval.  One  of 
them  has  already  been  described,  viz.,  the  Berea  shale,  cut  off  from  the 
foot  of  the  column.  Another,  and  a  much  more  conspicuous  element 
must  be  taken  off  from  the  top  of  the  column,  viz.,  the  Logan  group.  But 
there  still  remain  150  to  400  feet  of  a  perfectly  distinct,  homogeneous  and 
most  persistent  formation  that  deserves  a  name  as  much  as  the  Berea  grit 
itself,  or  any  other  stratum  in  the  Ohio  scale,  and  for  which  no  more  suit- 
able name  could  be  found  than  that  which  it  already  bears,  viz.,  Cuyahoga 
shale. 

It  consists  of  light-colored,  argillaceous  shales,  which  are  often  replaced 
with  single  courses  of  fine-grained  sandstone,  blue  in  color,  and  in  southern 
Ohio  weathering  to  a  brownish-yellow.  As  a  constant  characteristic,  there 
are  found  through  the  shales,  flattened  nodules  of  impure  iron  ore,  con- 
cretionary in  origin,  and  often  having  white  calcareous  centers. 

By  good  rights  the  shale  should  suffer  one  more  reduction  at  its 
lower  extremity.  Every-where  through  the  State  there  is  found  directly 
above  the  Berea  shale  or  at  a  short  remove  from  it,  a  number  of  courses 
of  fine-grained  stone.  These  courses  are  sometimes  separated  from  each 
other  by  beds  of  shale,  or  they  may  be  compacted  into  a  single  stratum. 
The  individual  courses  also  vary  greatly  in  thickness,  and  in  color  and 
general  characters.  Throughout  southern  Ohio,  and  particularly  in  Ross, 
Pike  and  Scioto  counties,  the  stratum  yields  freestone.  It  is  best  known 
from  its  outcrops  on  the  Ohio  river  at  Buena  Vista,  where  it  has  long 
been  very  extensively  worked  for  Cincinnati  and  other  river  markets. 
The  Buena  Vista  stone,  at  its  best,  is  one  of  the  finest  building  stones  of 
the  country.  The  same  horizon  yields  excellent  stone  near  Portsmouth, 
Lucasville  and  Waverly.  It  is  known  as  the  Waverly  brown  stone  at 
the  latter  point. 

Northward,  through  the  State,  stone  of  more  or  less  value  is  found  in 
the  bottom  courses  of  the  Cuyahoga,  but  in  Trumbull  county,  near  War- 
ren, the  horizon  acquires  extreme  importance  as  the  source  of  the 
finest  natural  flagging  that  is  found  in  our  markets. 

It  would  have  been  well  if  the  thirty  or  forty  feet  containing  these 
courses  had  been  cut  off  from  the  Cuyahoga  shale,  in  which  case  the 
division  thus  formed  would  have  been  well  named  the  Buena  Vista  stone, 
but  inasmuch  as  the  series  does  not  absolutely  require  the  change,  it  is 
left  unmodified.  The  Sharpsville  sandstone  of  White  (Second  Penna. 
Survey,  Q.4),  belongs  to  this  horizon,  and  is  the  proper  equivalent  of  the 
Buena  Vista  stone. 

There  are  a  few  sections  in  which  the  Cuyahoga  shale  is  more  largely 


GEOLOGICAL    SCALE   AND    STRUCTURE.  39 

replaced  by  these  freestone  layers  than  in  the  general  account  above 
given.  In  the  cuts  of  the  Marietta  and  Cincinnati  Railroad,  east  from 
Chillicothe,  the  freestone  appears  to  constitute  a  notable  proportion,  per- 
haps .  fifteen  or  twenty  per  cent,  of  the  whole  material.  There  are  other 
points  at  which  the  stone  has  no  value. 

Under  cover  the  Cuyahoga  shale  retains  with  great  distinctness  and 
persistency  the  same  characteristics  that  are  found  in  its  outcrops.  From 
the  deep  drillings  of  eastern  Ohio,  wherever  its  horizon  has  been  reached, 
there  are  uniformly  reported  300  to  400  feet  of  white  shales  with  occa- 
sional sandstone  layers,  through  which  the  drill  descends  rapidly  and 
easily.  The  Buena  Vista  courses  are  also  frequently  reported  directly 
above,  or  at  least  near  to,  the  Berea  shale. 

The  fossils  with  which  the  Cuyahoga  shale  has  been  credited  have 
been  largely  derived  from  the  division  next  to  be  described,  while  this 
was  counted  a  part  of  the  shale.  As  here  limited,  it  is,  for  most  part, 
poor  in  fossils.  The  surfaces  of  many  of  its  beds  are  marked  with  the 
impressions  of  the  cock-tail  fucoid,  and  in  its  upper  portions  occasional 
courses  are  found  in  which  the  animal  fossils  of  this  age  are  abundant 
and  well-preserved.  Its  most  interesting  fossils  are  preserved  in  concre- 
tions, as  has  recently  been  shown  by  Prof.  C.  L.  Herrick  of  Cincinnati 
University. 

lie.     The  Logan  Group. 

(The  Olive  Shales  of  Eead.    The  Logan  Sandstone  of  Andrews.     The  Waverly 
t  Conglomerate  of  Andrews.) 

The  divisions  of  the  Waverly  series  in  northern  Ohio  happened  to 
be  made  at  a  point  where  the  section  is  abnormal  and  incomplete.  By 
atrophy  or  by  overlap,  the  upper  member  of  the  series  is  wanting  in  the 
Cuyahoga  Valley,  or  is  at  least  very  inadequately  represented  there.  The 
missing  member  is  in  volume  second  only  to  the  Cuyahoga  shale,  among 
the  divisions  of  the  Waverly.  It  is  much  richer  in  the  fossils  of  the 
Sub-carboniferous  than  any  of  the  other  members.  In  composition  it  is 
varied  and  striking,  one  of  its  elements  being  a  massive  conglomerate 
or  series  of  conglomerates,  not  less  than  200  feet  in  its  largest  sections, 
which  extends  in  unbroken  outcrop  through  at  least  a  half  dozen  counties  of 
Ohio.  No  good  reason  can  be  found  for  dividing  the  Waverly  series  at  all, 
if  a  member  like  this  is  to  be  left  without  a  name,  or  is  to  be  merged  with 
an  unlike  and  incongruous  division  from  which  it  is  as  sharply  differen- 
tiated as  any  one  stratum  of  Ohio  is  from  any  other. 

The  real,  though  not  the  formal,  separation  of  this  group  from  the 
underlying  shale,  is  due  to  the  late  Professor  E.  B.  Andrews,  and  consti- 
tutes one  of  his  most  important  contributions  to  our  knowledge  of  Ohio 


4O  GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO. 

geology.  He  was  the  first  to  show  that  the  great  conglomerate  of  Hock- 
ing, Fairfield  and  Licking  counties  is  Sub-carboniferous  in  age,  and  he 
further  called  attention  to  a  highly  fossiliferous,  fine-grained  sandstone 
overlying  the  conglomerate,  to  which  he  gave  the  name  of  Logan  sand- 
stone, from  its  occurrence  at  Logan,  Hocking  county.  Up  to  this  time 
this  conglomerate  had  been  universally  counted  as  the  Coal  Measure 
conglomerate.  Read  made  known  the  existence  of  a  heavy  body  of  shale, 
which  he  called  Olive  shales,  overlying  the  conglomerate  and  replacing 
the  Logan  sandstone  in  Knox,  Holmes  and  Richland  counties. 

As  both  conglomerate  and  sandstone  have  their  typical  outcrops  at 
Logan,  no  better  name  can  be  found  for  the  formation  which  must 
include  conglomerate,  sandstone,  and  shale,  than  that  here  adopted,  viz., 
Logan  group. 

The  maximum  thickness  of  the  Logan  group  is  not  less  than  400 
feet.  Its  average  thickness  is  perhaps  200  feet.  It  has  received  less  study 
than  the  rest  of  the  series,  and  much  work  is  needed  in  the  correlation  of 
its  several  elements. 

A  typical  or  representative  section  of  this  group  is  scarcely  possible, 
but  the  most  characteristic  and  persistent  part  of  the  series  is  the  con- 
glomerate that  is  found  at  the  bottom.  At  all  events,  coarse  rock,  if  not 
always  technically  conglomerate,  is  generally  found  here.  Pebbles  do  not 
make  a  conspicuous  part  of  the  rock  when  it  takes  a  conglomeritic  phase, 
in  all  cases.  The  most  characteristic  feature  of  the  pebbles  is  their  small 
and  uniform  size.  The  larger  pebbles  are  generally  flat.  There  is,  how- 
ever, a  good  deal  of  variation  in  all  these  respects* 

Much  of  the  conglomerate  is  fairly  even  in  its  bedding,  and  otherwise 
adapted  to  quarry  purposes.  The  formation  yields  in  central  and  southern 
Ohio  quite  a  large  amount  of  valuable  building  and  bridge  stone. 

The  conglomerate  is  peculiar  in  this  respect,  viz.,  it  is  fossiliferous, 
containing  both  animal  and  vegetable  fossils.  The  usual  Sub-carbonif- 
erous types  of  both  divisions  are  found  in  it. 

It  is  interrupted  by  layers  of  fine  or  medium-grained  sandstone,  and 
sometimes  by  shale  deposits.  In  central  Ohio,  there  are  two  fairly  per- 
sistent beds  of  conglomerate  as  recently  shown  by  Herrick,  that  can  be 
used  in  stratigraphical  determinations. 

The  prevailing  colors  are  yellowish,  red  or  brown.  Much  of  it  is 
handsomely  variegated. 

Its  best  developments  are  in  Hocking,  Fairfield,  Ross,  Vinton,  Lick- 
ing, Knox  and  Wayne  counties,  which  constitute  the  northwestern  arc  of 
the  sea-boundary  of  Ohio  in  Sub-carboniferous  time.  South  of  Ross 
county  it  loses  most  of  its  pebbles,  and  south  of  the  Ohio  it  becomes  the 
knobstone  of  Kentucky.  It  is  also  the  knobstone  of  Indiana,  at  least  in 


GEOLOGICAL   SCALE   AND    STRUCTURE.  4! 

part.  In  northeastern  Ohio  the  Logan  group  is  also  destitute  of  pebbles, 
and  perhaps  the  conglomerate  element  proper  does  not  appear  here  at  all. 

White  gives  a  generalized  section  of  the  rocks  of  Erie  and  Crawford 
counties,  Pennsylvania,  in  Report  Q.  4,  page  66,  of  the  second  Pennsyl- 
vania Survey.  He  shows  the  presence  of  six  sandstones  in  the  scale,  and 
three  of  these  are  common  to  the  Ohio  scale  as  well.  The  Shenango  sand- 
stone of  his  column  is,  without  doubt,  the  representative  of  our  Logan 
sandstone  and  Waverly  conglomerate.  His  Sharpsville  sandstone  is  our 
Buena  Vista  stone,  and  his  Corry  sandstone  is  none  other  than  our  per- 
sistent and  important  stratum,  the  Berea  grit.  The  sandstones  of  the 
Pennsylvania  column  that  underlie  the  Berea  grit  do  not  appear  as  such 
in  the  Ohio  scale,  as  has  been  already  shown.  By  the  same  token,  White's 
Orange ville  shale  is  the  equivalent  of  our  Berea  shale,  his  Meadville  shales 
are  our  Cuyahoga  shale  in  part,  and  his  Shenango  shales  are  a  part  of  our 
Logan  series. 

Interstratified  with  the  conglomerate  courses  in  southern  Ohio,  are 
two  or  more  fairly  persistent  layers  of  impure  limestone.  No  fossils  have 
been  found  in  them.  Similar  layers  occur  in  the  Logan  series  of  north- 
eastern Ohio,  except  that  in  this  case  the  limestones  are  fossiliferous. 
They  are  the  Upper  and  Lower  Meadville  limetones  of  White,  and  can  be 
followed  into  Ohio  from  Crawford  county,  Pennsylvania,  where  they  were 
first  described. 

The  Logan  sandstone  that  succeeds  the  Waverly  conglomerate  in  the 
full  section  is  an  uncertain  and  inconstant  element,  for  the  reason  that  it 
plays  fast  and  loose  with  the  stratum  last  described.  Much  could  be  said 
in  favor  of  counting  it  the  upper  portion  of  the  conglomerate.  In  its 
typical  exposures,  it  is  a  fawn-colored,  fine-grained,  even-bedded  sand- 
stone. In  this  phase  of  the  formation,  the  most  favorable  conditions  for 
the  marine  life  of  the  period  seem  to  have  been  attained,  the  sandstone 
being  prolific  in  fossils.  The  characters  above  given  are  quite  widely 
held  through  the  State.  The  Logan  sandstone  often  rises  to  the  base  of 
the  coal  series. 

The  Olive  shales  of  Read  are  probably  the  exact  equivalent  of  the 
Logan  sandstone  in  age.  They  seem  to  take  its  place  in  the  central  coun- 
ties in  part.  Overlying  the  coarse  rock  in  Knox  and  Coshocton  counties, 
Read  reports  more  than  300  feet  of  sparingly  fossiliferous  shales  to  which 
he  gives  the  name  here  used. 

Diverse  as  these  elements  are,  they  are  blended  and  interlocked  in 
the  Logan  group,  leaving  it  in  stratigraphy  and  fossils  a  well-defined  and 
easily  followed  series  throughout  all  parts  of  the  territory  in  which  it  is 
due,  except  in  possibly  a  small  area  in  northern  Ohio,  as  already  noted, 
and  even  here,  there  is  no  difficulty  in  recognizing  the  pressure  of  this 


42  GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO. 

series.     The  several  elements  are,  however,  of  smaller  volume  than  else- 
where. 

Under  cover,  throughout  southeastern  Ohio,  the  series  is  in  the 
highest  degree  persistent  and  regular,  much  more  uniform,  indeed,  than 
in  its  outcrops.  It  consists  of  200  feet  or  more  of  prevailingly  coarse  rock 
almost  every-where  pebbly  in  spots,  but  interrupted  with  sheets  of  shale, 
yellowish  and  reddish  colors  being  the  characteristic  ones.  It  has  con- 
siderable interest  in  connection  with  gas,  oil  and  salt-water  in  Ohio,  being 
the  reservoir  of  the  brines  of  the  Hocking  and  Muskingum  Valleys,  and 
furnishing  in  the  latter  large  supplies  of  gas  in  the  early  days  of  salt 
manufacture  in  the  State.  It  is  also  the  "  Big  Indian  "  sandstone  of  the  oil 
well  drillers  of  western  Pennsylvania. 

As  stated  above,  this  extensive  series  of  deposits  needs  much  more 
study,  especially  in  the  line  of  paleontology,  before  its  relations  and 
equivalences  can  be  counted  settled.  Very  valuable  and  promising  con- 
tributions to  our  knowledge  of  the  group  have  lately  been  made  by  Prof. 
C.  L.  Herrick  of  the  University  of  Cincinnati.  They  are  published  in 
the  bulletins  of  the  Scientific  Laboratories  of  Dennisoii  University  for 
1888.  In  view  of  Professor  Herrick's  studies,  it  seems  probable  that  the 
Waverly  group  will  admit  of  distinct  divisions  on  paleontological  grounds 
and  that  these  divisions  can  be  correlated  with  the  leading  members  of 
the  Sub-carboniferous  system  in  Indiana,  Kentucky  and  the  West.* 

The  Sub-carboniferous  series  of  Ohio  has  now,  with  the  exception  of  a 
single  element  presently  to  be  named,  been  passed  in  review.  It  is  seen 
to  be  a  very  sharply  characterized  series,  a  most  persistent  sandstone, 
though  not  a  thick  one,  lying  near  its  base,  bedded  in  shale  and  covered 
also  by  shale,  the  lower  shale  being  often  red  in  color  and  the  roof  shale 
being  always  black,  and  another  sandstone  or  conglomerate  stratum,  200 
feet  or  more  in  thickness,  forming  the  upper  member  of  the  series,  these 
two  persistent  sandstones  being  separated  from  each  other  by  300  or  more 
feet  of  light-colored,  soft,  argillaceous'  shales.  No  conditions  could  be 
more  favorable  for  tracing  such  a  group  under  ground  than  the  conditions 
here  found,  and  consequently  the  records  of  deep  drillings  in  southern 
Ohio  become  almost  as  clear  and  legible  as  if  the  rocks,  through  which  the 
drill  has  passed,  lay  exposed  to  the  light  of  day. 

12.    THE  SUB-CARBONIFEROUS  LIMESTONE. 

This  element  is  of  comparatively  small  account  as  a  surface  formation 
in  Ohio,  but  it  gathers  strength  to  the  southeastward  of  its  outcrops,  and 

*Professor  Herrick's  most  recent  work  may  be  counted  as  settling  the  questions  raised  in  these 
paragraphs  on  paleontological  grounds.  He  finds  the  best  of  reasons  for  believing  that  the  entire 
series  here  named  the  Logan  group  overlies  the  Cuyahoga  shale  of  northern  Ohio.  His  results  are 
extremely  interesting  and  valuable. 


GEOLOGICAL  SCALE  AND  STRUCTURE.  43 

shown  in  many  well  records  as  a  stratum  fifty  or  more  feet  in  thickness. 
It  was  recognized  as  a  member  of  our  geological  column  by  the  geologists 
of  the  first  survey,  but  Andrews  was  the  first  to  assign  it  to  its  proper 
place  and  to  show  its  true  equivalence.  He  named  it  the  Maxville  lime- 
stone, from  a  locality  in  southwestern  Perry  county,  where  it  is 
well  exposed  in  beds  that  aggregate  fifteen  feet  in  thickness.  Still 
heavier  deposits  of  it  he  found  in  the  valley  of  Jonathan's  Creek,  in 
Muskingum  county,  near  Newtonville.  He  collected  fossils  by  which  its 
age  was  shown  to  be  about  that  of  the  Chester  limestone  of  the  Missouri 
and  Illinois  sections. 

The  limestone,  in  its  best  development,  is  a  fairly  -pure,  very  fine- 
grained, sparingly  fossiliferous  rock.  It  breaks  with  a  conchoidal  fracture. 
In  fineness  and  homogenity  of  grain  it  approaches  lithographic  stone  and 
has  been  tested  in  the  small  way  for  this  special  use.  It  is  seldom  even 
and  regular  in  its  bedding.  Its  color  is  light  drab  or  brown,  and  often  it 
is  a  beautiful  building  stone,  though  somewhat  expensive  to  work.  The 
fire-clay  found  at  this  horizon  in  southern  Ohio  is  one  of  the  most  valuable 
deposits  of  this  sort  in  our  entire  scale.  The  limestone  is  found  in  out- 
crop in  Scioto,  Jackson,  Hocking,  Perry  and  Muskingum  counties.  It  is 
reported  in  the  well  records  of  Steubenville,  Brilliant,  Macksburg,  and  at 
several  other  points  in  the  Ohio  Valley. 

There  remains  to  be  briefly  described,  with  reference  to  its  gas  and 
oil-producing  properties,  the  great  Carboniferous  system  of  Ohio.  An  ex- 
tended and  careful  review  of  its  composition,  as  understood  at  the  pres- 
ent time,  is  given  in  Geology  of  Ohio,  Volume  V,  and  consequently  it  will 
be  enough  at  this  point  to  call  to  mind  itsjmore  salient  features.  In  the 
review  in  Volume  V,  the  Conglomerate  series  of  Pennsylvania  was  included 
with  the  Lower  Coal  Measures,  though  the  boundaries  of  each  were  shown 
to  be  clearly  recognizable  here.  There  are,  however,  less  imperative 
grounds  for  the  separation  in  Ohio  than  in  Pennsylvania  and  the  Virginias, 
and  if  only  the  Ohio  series  were  to  be  classified,  it  is  not  probable  that  the 
divisions  would  have  been  made.  But  they  stand  for  great  and  conspic- 
uous facts  elsewhere,  and  it  probably  would  have  been  better  to  have 
maintained  them  in  our  territory  also.  The  separation  will  be  recognized 
in  this  review. 

13.    THE  CONGLOMERATE  GROUP. 

This  group  consists  of  three  great  sandstones,  between  which  and  in 
which,  are  distributed  two  thin  but  persistent  limestones  and  four  coal 
seams  of  considerable  value.  The  order  is  shown  in  the  table  below.  A 
fifth  coal  seam  is  occasionally  found. 


44  GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO. 

f  HOMEWOOD  SANDSTONE. 
(Tionesta  coal.) 

(Ore. 
Upper  Mercer  Group.     -I  Limestone. 

t  Coal. 

f  Ore. 
Conglomerate  group,     j  Lower  Mercer  Group.     -<  Limestone. 

(  Coal,  No.  3,  Newberry. 
MASSILLON  SANDSTONE,  UPPER. 
(Quakertown  Coal.) 
MASSILLON  SANDSTONE,  LOWER. 
Sharon  coal — Coal  No.  1,  Newberry. 

[SfaARON   COMGLOMERATE. 

This  group  has  an  average  aggregate  thickness  of  250  feet.  At  least, 
this  figure  need  not  mislead  the  student  of  our  geology,  though  the  range 
is  great.  It  has  some  importance  as  a  source  of  gas  and  oil  in  a  few  local- 
ities, as  will  hereafter  appear. 

14.     THE  LOWER  COAL  MEASURES. 

This  division  includes  for  Ohio  the  most  important  section  of  the 
Coal  Measures.  In  it  are  found  six  seams  of  coal,  four  horizons  of  lime- 
stone, including  the  most  important  of  the  Coal  Measure  limestones,  viz., 
the  Ferriferous,  and  several  valuable  iron  ores  and  fire-clays.  Its  interest 
in  the  present  connection  is,  however,  chiefly  confined  to  its  sandstone 
ledges,  four  of  which  attain  to  fair  development  and  extension.  They  are, 
in  ascending  order,  the  Hecla  sandstone,  immediately  underlying  the 
Ferriferous  limestone,  and  mainly  confined  to  the  southwestern  boundary 
of  the  coal  field ;  the  Kittanning  sandstone,  also  mainly  confined  to  the 
southwestern  part  of  the  coal  field,  and  lying  betwen  the  two  Kittanning 
coals ;  the  Lower  Freeport  sandstone,  quite  massive,  and  in  a  number  of 
counties  distinctly  conglomeritic ;  the  Upper  Freeport  sandstone,  less  mas- 
sive and  important  in  Ohio,  but  still  a  persistent  deposit.  Some  of  these 
sandstones  probably  take  a  small  part  in  gas  or  oil  production  in  a  few 
fields. 

15.    THE  LOWER  BARREN  MEASURES. 

No  detailed  account  of  this  section,  nor  of  Nos.  16  and  17,  need  be 
given  here.  There  is  but  one  sandstone  in  all  of  these  divisions  that  is 
known  to  be  important  in  connection  with  the  subjects  of  the  present 
chapter.  This  is  the  Mahoning  sandstone,  a  massive  and  conglomerate 
ledge  at  the  base  of  the  Lower  Barren  Measures.  It  produces  quite  an 
amount  of  petroleum  in  several  fields  of  Ohio,  particularly  from  its 
upper  division  which  is  also  known  as  the  Buffalo  sandstone. 


GEOLOGICAL  SCALE  AND  STRUCTURE.  45 

18.     THE  GLACIAL  DRIFT. 

Over  the  various  bedded  rocks  of  at  least  two-thirds  of  Ohio  are 
spread  in  varying  thickness  the  deposits  of  the  Drift,  the  most  character- 
istic and  important  of  which  is  the  Bowlder  clay.  This  frequently  con- 
tains in  its  lower  portions  large  accumulations  of  vegetable  matter,  the 
remains  of  coniferous  forests  that  occupied  the  country  before  the  advent 
of  the  Drift,  or  at  some  interglacial  stage  of  its  duration.  Peat  bogs  are 
sometimes  found  buried  in  like  manner  in  or  under  the  bowlder  clay. 
Thus  the  latest  of  our  geological  formations,  as  well  as  the  earliest,  con- 
tains materials  that  can  give  rise  to  supplies  of  inflammable  gas. 


II.    THE  GEOLOGICAL  STRUCTURE  OF  OHIO. 

The  geological  structure  of  Ohio  is  as  simple  as  that  oi  almost  any 
other  40,000  square  miles  of  the  earth's  surface.  As  already  shown  all  of 
its  strata  except  a  small  portion  of  the  Coal  Measures,  were  deposited  in 
the  waters  of  an  ancient  arm  of  the  sea,  of  which  the  present  Gulf  of 
Mexico  is  the  dwarfed  and  diminished  remnant  and  representative.  Its 
most  fossiliferous  limestones,  as  the  Corniferous,  for  example,  stand  for 
clear  waters  of  tropical  warmth.  Its  conglomerates  and  sandstones  re- 
quired strong  currents  for  their  transportation  from  distant  shores.  Its 
shales  must  have  been  deposited  in  seas  of  at  least  moderate  depth,  large 
areas  of  which,  as  well  as  all  of  the  shores  were  covered  with  sargasso- 
like  masses  of  sea-weed. 

These  strata  seem  to  have  been  deposited  on  a  fairly  regular  and  level 
floor,  and  they  have  never  been  subjected  to  very  great  disturbance,  that 
is,  they  have  nowhere  been  raised  into  mountains  nor  depressed  into  deep 
valleys,  but  still  they  have  been  warped  and  distorted  to  some  extent  in 
the  course  of  their  long  history. 

In  the  southeastern  quarter  of  the  State  are  a  few  anticlinal  arches, 
all  of  which,  however,  are  very  gentle  and  low,  and  none  of  which  can  be 
traced  for  many  miles  in  the  direction  in  which  they  extend.  They  in- 
volve all  of  the  strata  that  belong  in  the  district  in  which  they  are 
found.  A  modification  of  the  arch  resulting  in  a  terrace-like  arrange- 
ment of  the  strata,  is  one  of  the  most  important  phases  of  the  structure 
in  this  portion  of  the  State.  In  southwestern  Ohio,  the  structure  is  ex- 
ceedingly simple  and  easily  read,  so  far  as  now  appears.  The  movements 
to  which  this  section  of  the  State  have  been  subjected,  are  as  small  as  is 
consistent  with  their  ready  recognition  and  measurement. 


46  GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO. 

Less  is  known  of  the  structure -of  northeastern  Ohio,  and  especially 
of  the  lake  counties  from  Cuyahoga  county  eastward,  than  of  any  other 
-quarter  of  the  State.  This  fact  is  due  in  part,  possibly,  to  the  want  of 
recognizable  horizons  in  those  counties  from  which  dip  can  be  readily 
calculated.  In  the  shale  formation  that  prevails  here,  and  which  attains 
a  thickness  of  a  thousand  feet  or  more,  there  are  but  few  marks  known 
by  which  we  can  follow  particular  horizons  from  point  to  point  without 
the  aid  of  directly  connected  outcrops,  such  for  example,  as  are  found 
in  the  walls  of  a  gorge.  The  upper  and  lower  boundaries  of  the  shale 
wherever  they  can  be  reached,  give  every  needed  opportunity  for  such 
measurements.  The  lower  boundary  is  the  Upper  Helderberg  limestone, 
and  this  has  been  used  in  all  the  sections  in  which  it  is  available.  It  is 
known  to  have  been  reached  at  Elyria,  Cleveland,  Massillon,  Akron,  Wads- 
worth  and  at  other  points  on  the  lake  shore.  Further  back  from  the  lake 
we  obtain  in  the  Berea  grit  an  excellent  horizon  to  follow  in  tracing  the 
disposition  of  the  strata.  By  means  of  it  an  important  flexure  has  been 
brought  to  light. 

The  surface  of  northwestern  Ohio  is  much  more  nearly  level  than 
that  of  either  of  the  sections  already  reviewed.  It  constitutes  a  great 
plain,  which  is  covered,  and  often  heavily  covered  with  drift,  deposits 
that  entirely  obscure  the  underlying  rock  for  scores  and  hundreds  of 
square  miles.  .Up  to  a  recent  date  it  was  not  known  that  the  under- 
lying rock  failed  to  share  the  monotony  of  the  surface,  but  the  explora- 
tions of  the  last  four  years  have  revealed  the  surprising  fact  that  the  rocky 
floor  of  the  "  black  swamp  "  of  old  time  is  characterized  by  far  greater 
irregularity  of  structure  and  by  far  greater  suddenness  and  steepness  of 
dip  than  the  strata  of  any  other  portion  of  Ohio.  The  entire  floor  of 
northwestern  Ohio,  including  the  lake  counties,  as  far  east  as  Lorain 
county,  is  seen  to  lie  in  a  disturbed  and  uneasy  condition.  It  is  not  un- 
common to  find  the  rocks  descending  at  an  angle  of  two  to  ten  degrees, 
but  the  descent  is  not,  as  a  rule,  long  continued,  and  all  of  these  irregu- 
larities are  subordinate  to,  and  included  in  the  main  dip  of  the  strata. 

The  structure  of  the  State  can  best  be  studied  by  taking  one-half  of 
it  at  a  time.  The  western,  or  older  half,  will  be  first  considered.  The 
dominant  feature  in  the  structure  and  physical  history  of  Western  Ohio, 
is  the  so-called  Cincinnati  anticlinal.  A  number  of  facts  pertaining  to 
this  will  now  be  given. 

1.    THE  CINCINNATI  ANTICLINAL. 

As  soon  as  the  geology  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  began  to  be  studied, 
it  became  apparent  that  there  had  been  in  early  time  an  extensive  uplift 
of  the  older  rocks  in  the  central  parts  of  Tennessee  and  Kentucky  and 


OF  THE 
COLLEGE  OF 

•y/- 


GEOLOGICAL   SCALE   AND    STRUCTURE.  47 

n  southwestern  Ohio  which  had  exerted  a  profound  influence  on  all 
the  subsequent  growth  of  the  regions  traversed  by  and  adjacent  thereto. 
This  uplift  has  received  several  designations,  but  the  name  given  to  it  by 
Newberry,  viz.,  The  Cincinnati  anticlinal  or  uplift,  will  here  be  adopted, 
inasmuch  as  this  geologist  has  furnished  by  far  the  most  careful  and  con- 
nected account  that  has  yet  been  given  of  it. 

It  is  to  be  recognized,  however,  that  this  structural  feature  has  in  it 
little  or  nothing  of  the  character  of  an  anticlinal  or  arch,  as  these  terms 
are  commonly  understood.  There  is  no  roof-shaped  arrangement  of  the 
strata  whatever,  but  they  are  spread  out  in  a  nearly  level  tract,  100 
miles  or  more  in  breadth.  The  slopes  within  the  tract  are  very  light 
and  are  quite  uniform  in  direction,  and  the  boundaries  of  the  tract  are 
well  defined,  as  a  rule. 

This  Trenton  limestone,  as  has  already  been  shown,  makes  the  floor 
of  western  Ohio.  By  means  of  the  deep  drilling  that  has  been  carried  on 
throughout  this  part  of  the  State,  we  have  obtained  soundings  to  this 
limestone  floor  so  extensive  that  we  are  already  able  to  restore  approxi- 
mately its  topography. 

The  underground  disposition  of  the  Trenton  limestone  becomes  very 
significant  in  connection  with  the  Cincinnati  uplift.  In  fact,  it  is  the 
Cincinnati  uplift ;  and  the  study  of  the  facts  pertaining  to  it  will  be 
found  to  throw  more  light  on  this  earliest  and  most  important  structural 
feature  of  the  State  than  can  be  obtained  from  any  and  from  all  other 
sources.  Some  of  the  results  of  these  recent  explorations  are  unexpected. 
A  few  of  the  principal  points  that  are  now  established  will  be  stated  here. 

1.  Instead  of  bearing  uniformly  to  the  northeast,  as  the  facts 
available  to  us  before  the  deep  drilling  of  the  last  few  years  was  under- 
taken seemed  to  show,  the  Cincinnati  uplift  bears  to  the  northwest,  so  far 
as  the  highest  lying  regions  of  the  Trenton  limestone  are  concerned. 
The  lines  of  level  bearing  in  this  formation  are  approximately  northwest 
lines.  Starting  from  Point  Pleasant,  where  the  sole  outcrop  of  the  Tren- 
ton limestone  in  Ohio  is  found  at  an  elevation  of  about  450  feet  above 
tide,  the  line  of  slowest  descent  passes  through  Clermont,  Hamilton  and 
Butler  counties  to  the  Indiana  boundary,  and  thence  through  Union, 
Fayette,  Wayne,  Henry,  Delaware,  Madison  and  Grant  counties,  of  the 
last  named  State.  The  Trenton  limestone  descends  but  about  500  feet  in 
this  entire  line,  but  at  its  termination  it  descends  with  some  abruptness 
to  the  south  westward  and  also  to  the  northward.  If  a  similar  line  were 
to  be  followed  from  Point  Pleasant  an  equal  distance  due  northward  its 
descent  would  be  nearly  2,000  feet,  or  four  times  as  much  as  in  a  north- 
westerly direction.  If  the  line  should  be  drawn  northeastward  from 
Point  Pleasant,  in  the  direction  in  which  the  Cincinnati  axis  has  hereto- 


48  GEOLOGY   OF   OHIO. 

f  ore  been  held  to  extend,  the  descent  would  again  be  found  to  be  2,00 
feet. 

The  apparent  easterly  trend  of  the  Cincinnati  uplift  which  appears 
in  the  surface  limestones  of  northern  and  central  Ohio,  is  found  not  to  be 
due  to  a  flexure  of  the  rocks  as  was  naturally  supposed  at  first,  but  to  a 
considerable  thickening  of  the  great  shale  series  that  underlies  the  Upper 
Silurian  limestone.  The  Medina,  Hudson  River  and  Utica  shales  which 
are  generally  counted  together  in  their  underground  sections,  reach  twice 
as  great  a  measure  in  the  counties  due  south  of  Toledo,  for  example,  as 
they  have  in  the  counties  on  the  western  boundary  of  the  State. 

2.  In  the  second  place,  it  is  to  be  noted,  that  a  northeasterly  off- 
shoot from  the  main  uplift  is  found  in  the  Trenton  limestone  of  western 
central  Ohio.    It  enters  the  State  from  Indiana  in  Darke  county,  and 
holds  a  northeast  course  from  the  point  of  beginning  through  Lima  to 
Findlay.     At  this  point  the  uplift  bends  abruptly  and  bears  due  north  or 
a  little  west  of  north  to  the  Michigan  boundary,  which  it  reaches  near 
Sylvania.     The  northeasterly  portion  of  this  tract  may  be  named  the 
Lima  axis.     It  is  twenty  to  thirty  miles  wide  at  its  narrowest  portion, 
and  the  deep  floor  of  the  Trenton  limestone  lies  very  nearly  level  through- 
out this  entire  area.     The  descent  in  any  direction  is  often  found  to  be 
less  than  five  feet  to  the  mile. 

The  structure  at  Findlay  is  that  of  a  well-marked  monocline,  descend- 
ing to  the  westward,  and  often  at  the  rate  of  one  foot  in  eight,  for  1,000 
vto  1,200  feet  of  horizontal  distance.     The  break  can  be  traced  with  perfect 
distinctness  to  the  north  of  Findlay,  passing  a  little  westward  of  Van 
Buren,  North  Baltimore,  Bowling  Green,  Monclova  and  Sylvania. 

3.  In  Sandusky  and  Ottawa  counties  there  is  a  two-forked  axis  of  no 
great  force,  that  extends  from  the  vicinity  of  Fremont  northward  to  the 
lake  shore.     This  axis  is  plainly  shown  on  the  geological  map  of  the 
State,  the  surface  formations  revealing  distinctly  the  conditions  of  the 
underlying  Trenton  limestone.    The  map  was  made  in  1871-2,  and  the 
existence  of  the  two-pronged  axis  was  noted  at  that  time,  but  of  course  no 
suspicion  existed  as  to  the  facts  of  recent  development.    One  fork  of  the 
axis  gives  rise  to  the  Gibsonburg  oil  and  gas  field,  and  the  other  supplies 
the  gas  that  has  been  struck  at  Oak  Harbor  and  elsewhere  in  the  vicinity. 
The  last  of  these  arches  has  been  found  to  lie  700  feet  below  tide.     It  is  of 
small  extent,  so  that  the  gas  wells  that  are  found  in  it  are  rather  speedily 
overrun  by  salt  water.     The  Gibsonburg  oil  and  gas  rock  lies  about  600 
feet  below  tide.     At  Tiffin  also  several  flexures  have  been  found  by  the 
driller,  but  none  of  them  have  any  large  extent.    They  have  proved 
effective  in  the  differentiation  of  oil,  gas  and  salt  water,  but  the  reservoirs 
have  been  found  to  be  very  small. 


GEOLOGICAL  SCALE  AND  STRUCTURE.  49 

4.  A  local  elevation  of  the  Trenton  limestone  of  small  force  has  been 
found  by  the  drill  in  Williams  county,  in  the  vicinity  of  Bryan  and 
Edgerton.  The  relief  of  the  rock  is  but  slight  and  the  quantity  of  gas  or 
oil  contained  in  it  is  accordingly  small.  This  so-called  elevation  may  be 
in  fact  only  the  normal  extension  of  the  limestone  from  the  southward, 
while  the  relief  may  have  been  caused  by  a  trough  of  depression  that 
passes  through  Fulton  county  to  the  eastward,  as  shown  by  the  drilling 
at  Wauseon.  On  the  western  edge  of  the  trough,  there  is  possibly  the 
effect  of  an  uplift.  The  facts  from  this  part  of  the  State  are  too  few  to 
allow  any  large  or  confident  generalizations. 

In  the  preceding  statements  the  structure  of  the  western  half  of  the 
State  has  been  considered,  the  disposition  of  the  Trenton  limestone  being 
taken  as  the  determining  factor.  The  opportunities  for  using  this  stratum 
in  such  a  study  are  of  recent  date  and  are  not  likely  to  be  soon  repeated. 
It  is  probable  that  the  larger  features  of  the  arrangement  of  this  universally 
extended  sheet  have  been  already  brought  to  light,  but  wherever  explora- 
tion by  the  drill  goes  forward  minor  phases  of  structure  of  more  or  less 
interest  will  always  be  disclosed.  The  geological  work  that  has  been  car- 
ried on  in  the  northwestern  counties  of  the  State  during  the  last  four  years 
has  revealed  an  amount  of  disturbance  of  this  minor  sort  for  which  we 
were  not  prepared.  The  southwestern  quarter  of  Ohio  is  characterized  by 
exceptionally  regular  structure,  but  there  are  very  few  rock  outcrops  of 
any  considerable  extent  in  the  northern  counties  that  do  not  betray  flex- 
ures and  disturbances  on  the.  small  scale  already  noted.  The  rocks  every- 
where lie  in  an  uneasy  condition,  in  striking  contrast  with  the  monoto- 
nous features  of  the  central  and  southern  portions  of  the  State  adjacent  to 
them. 

STRUCTURE  OF  EASTERN  OHIO. 

The  structure  of  Eastern  Ohio  can  not  be  referred  to  the  same  base  as 
that  used  in  the  western  half  of  the  State.  The  Trenton  limestone  sinks 
out  of  practicable  reach  before  the  middle  line  of  the  State  is  passed. 

An  easterly  or  southeasterly  dip  of  the  rocks  begins  at  the  margin  of 
the  tract  that  has  been  described  as  the  Cincinnati  axis  and  continues 
through  the  subsequent  history  of  the  State,  constituting  the  most 
important  physical  feature  of  its  geology.  All  of  the  Sub-carboniferous 
and  Coal  Measure  strata,  in  particular,  are  affected  by  it.  The  southerly 
element  of  it  gradually  increases  as  we  pass  to  northeastern  Ohio,  and  it 
is  probable  that  the  dip  becomes  due  south  at  some  points  in  this  portion 
of  the  State.  Beyond  the  limits  of  Ohio,  in  Pennsylvania  and  West  Vir- 
ginia, the  corresponding  strata  descend  sharply  toward  the  westward. 
4  G. 


50  GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO. 

These  facts  considered  together  mark  out  the  limits  of  the  arm  of  the  sea 
in  which,  and  around  which,  the  northern  extension  of  the  Appalachian 
coal-field  was  built  up,  the  Cincinnati  axis  forming  its  western  boundary. 
These  uniform  and  continuous  southeasterly  dips  can  be  explained  by  the 
steady  growth  of  the  westward-lying  land,  after  the  fashion  already 
described.  The  dip  is  at  right  angles  to  the  constantly  advancing  border 
of  the  sea.  It  seldom  exceeds  thirty  feet  to  the  mile,  or  but  little  more 
than  half  a  degree  in  the  large  way,  but  it  is  alternately  sharpened  and 
reduced,  so  that  for  short  distances  a  much  greater  fall,  or  much  less,  may 
be  found. 

The  facts  of  our  present  topography  seem  to  point  to  an  original 
equality  of  elevation  of  those  portions  of  the  State  that  were  successively 
brought  under  this  uplifting  force.  The  western  outliers  of  all  of  the  for- 
mations are  at  the  present  time  at  least  at  approximately  the  same  eleva- 
tion above  the  sea. 

The  general  regularity  of  structure  that  has  been  repeatedly  affirmed 

for  the  State  is  not  inconsistent  with  the  existence  of  a  few  minor  folds 

• 

and  arches  distributed  through  the  eastern  half  of  its  area. 

Beginning  at  Columbiana  county  on  our  eastern  border,  a  low  axis 
is  found  entering  the  State  from  western  Pennsylvania.  It  crosses  the 
Little  Beaver  River  a  few  miles  above  its  mouth  near  Fredericktown  and 
has  been  named  from  this  town  by  Prof.  I.  C.  White  of  the  Pennsylvania 
Survey,  who  was  the  first  to  indicate  and  describe  it.  It  is  probably  this 
axis  that  enters  the  valley  of  the  Ohio  near  East  Liverpool  and  that 
makes  the  conspicuous  arch  between  that  place  and  Wellsville. 

Another  light  fold  is  found  along  the  line  of  the  Cleveland  and  Pitts- 
burgh Railroad.  Its  elevation  is  small  and  its  extent  has  not  been  traced. 
The  highest  point  of  this  arch  on  the  line  named  is  near  Salisbury,  and 
it  may  be  named  from  this  fact  the  Salisbury  anticlinal. 

Below  Steubenville  for  a  few  miles  there  is  an  arrest  of  normal  dip 
which  has  the  effect  and  is  probably  the  result  of  a  low  fold.  The  now 
extinct  Wellsburg  gas  field  is  located  in  this  region  and  probably  de- 
pended on  the  structure  already  indicated. 

A  gentle  anticline  of  considerable  longitudinal  extent  passes  through 
Harrison  county.  It  may  be  designated  the  Cadiz  anticline  from  the  fact 
that  it  was  first  recognized  and  tested  near  this  town.  Stevenson  called 
attention  to  it  in  his  report  on  Harrison  county  in  the  third  volume  of 
the  Second  Geological  Survey,  but  within  the  last  three  years,  consider- 
able money  has  been  invested  in  developing  the  arch  as  a  possible  gas  or 
oil  field.  Details  of  this  practical  exploration  will  be  found  on  a  subse- 
quent page.  This  arch  probably  crosses  the  line  of  the  Baltimore  and 
Ohio  Railway  near  Quaker  City,  but  it  is  of  very  small  force  at  this  point 


GEOLOGICAL  SCALE  AND  STRUCTURE,  51 

or  indeed  any  where  through  its  extent  as  far  as  followed.  To  the  north- 
eastward, the  Cadiz  anticline  may  become  the  low  Salisbury  anticline 
already  named.  Possibly  also  it  gives  rise  further  to  the  southwest  to  the 
Macksburg  oil  field. 

In  Belmont  county  some  weak  uplifts  of  the  same  general  sort  as 
those  already  described  have  been  located  in  the  work  of  searching  for 
gas  and  oil.  The  Cadiz  anticline  possibly  shows  itself  near  Barnesville. 
But  in  a  general  way,  the  structure  is  exceedingly  monotonous,  the  strata 
descending  to  the  southeastward  with  a  slow  and  very  regular  dip. 

A  somewhat  more  conspicuous  uplift  crosses  the  line  of  the  Balti- 
more and  Ohio  Railway  in  Guernsey  county.  It  has  long  been  known  as 
the  Cambridge  arch  or  anticline,  being  first  pointed  out  by  Professor 
Stevenson  in  the  reports  of  the  Second  Survey.  A  large  amount  of 
practical  exploration  has  been  carried  forward  on  this  line,  the  results  of 
which  will  be  described  on  a  later  page. 

In  Washington  county,  the  Cow  Run  anticline  is  a  distinct  and  more 
effective  arch  than  any  which  have  thus  far  been  described.  The  strongest 
development  of  it,  however,  is  found  south  of  the  Ohio  River. 

The  Macksburg  anticline  has  been  by  far  the  most  effective  thus  far 
found  in  southeastern  Ohio  in  the  way  of  oil  and  gas  accumulation.  It 
has  already  been  suggested  that  it  may  be  the  prolongation  of  the  same 
slight  fold  that  crosses  Harrison  county,  viz.,  the  Cadiz  anticline.  The 
structural  feature  here  named  the  Macksburg  anticline  can  be  so  called 
only  by  a  considerable  extension  of  the  term.  It  is  a  terrace  rather  than 
an  arch.  The  strata  that  are  descending  regularly  to  the  southeastward 
are  interrupted  in  their  descent  for  a  tract  that  is  a  mile  or  more  in 
breadth  and  this  tract  is  almost  a  dead  level.  On  its  higher  edge  dry  gas 
was  found  in  good  volume.  On  the  terrace  itself  a  valuable  oil  field  has 
been  already  worked  out,  while  on  the  lower  border,  an  ocean  of  salt 
water  holds  possession  of  the  rock.  The  credit  for  the  recognition  of  this 
very  important  feature  in  the  structure  of  oil  and  gas  fields  belongs  to  Mr. 
F.  W.  Minshall,  of  Marietta.  He  discovered  it  in  the  particular  field  now 
under  consideration.  The  terrace  structure  prevails'in  the  great  oil  fields  of 
northwestern  Ohio.  It  would,  no  doubt,  be  found  in'some  at  least  of  the 
Pennsylvania  fields  if  data  for  the  determination  were]  at  hand.  The 
famous  Bradford  field  would  probably  exhibit  this  feature.  In  fact,  it 
seems  probable  that  the  terrace  rather  than  the  arch  is  the  essential 
feature  in  all  large  oil  fields. 

NORTHEASTERN  OHIO. 

There  is  a  district  of  the  State  bordering  Lake  Erie'and  extending  at 
furthest  one  or  two  counties  back  from  the  lake  that  deserves  to  be  treated 


52  GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO. 

by  itself  in  this  connection.  The  predominant  element  in  the  geological 
section  is  the  Ohio  shale,  a  thousand  feet  thick  in  at  least  a  part  of  this 
territory. 

The  difficulty  of  determining  the  dip  in  the  shale  series  of  north- 
eastern Ohio  has  been  already  pointed  out.  It  arises  from  the  absence  of 
easily  recognized  horizons  in  this  formation.  In  the  ravines  and  gorges 
by  which  the  shales  are  traversed,  opportunities  are  often  afforded  to 
follow  particular  beds  or  bands  for  a  mile  or  two,  thus  rendering  it  pos- 
sible to  note  their  flexures,  but  it  is  only  when  the  Berea  grit  above  the 
shales  is  reached  or  when  the  drill  strikes  the  Devonian  limestones  under- 
neath them  that  we  acquire  horizons  clear  and  trustworthy  enough  to  be 
used  in  large  and  connected  calculations  of  the  dip  in  which  all  the  strata 
share.  The  Berea  grit  is  used  in  all  cases  where  it  occurs.  In  Lorain, 
Erie  and  Huron  counties  particularly,  the  local  disturbances  involving 
this  formation  are  numerous  and  considerable.  There  are  but  few  of  the 
sandstone  quarries  in  which  steep  dips  are  not  found,  the  direction  of 
which  sometimes  change  in  a  single  quarry.  It  is  easy,  however,  to  con- 
fuse a  true  inclination  of  the  series  which  is  attested  by  the  shale  sharing 
the  pitch  of  the  Berea  sandstone,  with  the  false  bedding  by  which  the 
last-named  formation  is  often  marked.  The  floor  on  which  the  sand- 
stone was  deposited  was  in  many  places  irregular,  having  been  made  so 
doubtless  by  erosion,  and  the  sand  was  laid  down  in  sharply  pitching 
beds.  There  is  a  great  display  of  this  mode  of  origin  in  the  region 
already  named. 

There  is,  however,  a  ridge  of  high-lying  Berea  sandstone  that  runs 
parallel  to  the  shore  of  Lake  Erie,  though  distant  from  it  thirty  or  more 
miles,  that  demands  a  brief  consideration.  The  sections  that  have  been 
obtained  from  the  lake  southward,  which  involve  the  continuity  of  the 
Berea  grit,  bring  to  view  a  low  arch  along  this  line.  At  Mecca  the 
stratum  (base)  is  about  925  feet  above  tide.  At  Akron  it  has  nearly  the 
same  elevation,  910  to  930  feet.  At  Shelby  it  is  945  feet,  and  Plymouth, 
Huron  county,  about  996  feet  above  tide. 

The  uplift  has  been  noticed  before,  and  an  attempt  has  been  made  to 
explain  it  by  an  assumed  thickening  of  the  underlying  shale  series. 
Where  the  sandstone  lies  highest,  viz. :  at  Plymouth,  the  shales  are  thin- 
ner by  150  feet  than  they  are  at  Elyria  on  the  lake  shore,  where  the  Berea 
grit  is  300  feet  lower  than  at  Plymouth.  The  only  explanation  of  the 
facts  that  appear  adequate,  is  the  obvious  one  that  a  low  anticlinal 
extends  from  Shelby  through  Akron  to  Mecca,  in  a  line  about  N.  70°  E. 

It  is  this  Akron  arch  that  constitutes  the  watershed  of  northern 
Ohio  for  at  least  a  part  of  its  extent.  It  also  seems  to  provide  a  natural 


GEOLOGICAL    SCALE   AND    STRUCTURE.  53 

southern  boundary  for  Lake  Erie.    The  lake  basin  would,  according  to 
this  view,  be  a  syncline. 

It  must  be  acknowledged,  however,  that  we  have  not  yet  facts 
enough  to  fully  establish  the  continuity  of  the  fold  that  is  here  suggested. 
The  points  from  which  measurements  are  reported  are  so  far  apart  that 
there  is  room  between  them  for  depressions  in  the  stratum  on  which  we 
rely. 

To  sum  up  the  statements  now  made,  we  know  but  comparatively 
few  arches  in  Ohio,  and  these  few  are  moderate  in  slope  and  small  in 
height.  Fuller  knowledge  of  our  geology  will  doubtless  give  us  a  larger 
number  of  these  low  folds,  but  there  is  little  probability  that  any  sharp 
and  well  defined  anticlinals  have  altogether  escaped  notice.  Those  that 
remain  to  be  discovered  will  agree  with  those  already  known,  in  breaking 
up  the  monotony  of  our  series  by  the  suspension  or  occasional  reversal  of 
the  prevailing  dip  and  in  requiring  close  and  accurate  measurements  for 
their  detection. 

By  untrained  observers,  the  watersheds  of  our  drainage  channels  are 
often  mistaken  for  anticlinals.  If  anticlinals  traverse  the  series  where 
these  identifications  are  made,  they  may  well  serve  to  divide  the  drainage 
systems  from  each  other,  but  such  "  divides  "  do  not  by  any  means  require 
these  structural  accidents  as  the  conditions  on  which  they  depend. 
Anticlinals  must  be  demonstrated,  not  inferred. 

The  problems  of  our  geology  in  this  field  are  dependent  on  the  use  of 
the  level.  Accurate  and  connected  series  of  elevations  of  well-settled 
horizons  are  indispensable  to  their  solution.  In  the  First  Geological 
Survey  of  the  State,  Whittlesey  recognized  the  need  of  physical  determin- 
ations of  the  various  elements  of  our  coal  fields  in  particular,  and  he 
began  at  that  time  a  valuable  series  of  measurements,  but  his  work  was 
of  necessity  hampered  by  a  want  of  well- determined  geological  horizons. 
The  essential  facts  of  identification  of  strata,  without  which  the  most 
careful  measurements  are  futile,  could  only  be  secured  by  the  prolonged 
study  and  the  economical  development  of  the  field,  the  latter  by  means 
of  the  introduction  of  railway  lines  and  the  utilization  of  its  minerals 
on  a  large  scale. 

This  work  of  development  has  now  been  carried  forward  on  both 
the  scientific  and  the  economic  sides  to  such  a  point  that  definite  solu- 
tions of  many  of  the  questions  of  our  structural  geology  are  easily 
attainable. 

There  are  but  few  districts  known  in  Ohio  in  which  disturbances  are 
to  be  found  that  fairly  deserve  the  name  of  faults.  In  the  northeast 
corner  of  Adams  county  and  in  adjacent  territory,  there  are  a  number  of 
square  miles  throughout  which  the  strata  are  really  dislocated.  The 


54  GEOLOGY    OF   OHIO. 

Berea  grit  is  found  in  contact  with  the  Niagara  shale  in  some  instances. 
The  throw  of  such  faults  must  be  at  least  400  feet.  Faults  of  this  char- 
acter in  Ohio  geology  are  as  unusual  and  unexpected  as  trap  dykes  in 
northern  Kentucky,  the  latter  of  which  have  been  recently  reported  by 
Crandall  (Ky.  Geol.  Survey).  An  account  of  the  Adams  county  fault 
will  be  found  in  a  succeeding  chapter. 

In  Geology  of  Ohio,  Vol.  V,  page  262,  mention  was  made  of  a  small 
area  of  disturbance  in  the  vicinity  of  Mineral  Point,  Tuscarawas  county. 
The  Findlay  monocline  has  been  referred  to  already,  and  will  be  further 
described  in  a  subsequent  chapter. 

The  account  of  our  structural  geology,  here  given,  seems  called  for  in 
this  connection  by  reason  of  the  prominence  that  is  given  to  anticlinals 
in  the  discussion  and  discovery  of  the  recent  natural  gas  supply  of  west- 
ern Pennsylvania.  The  great  wells  upon  which  Pittsburgh  depends  are 
unquestionably  located  on  the  summits  of  pronounced  folds.  This  fact 
has  lead  to  an  eager  inquiry  in  regard  to  similar  folds  in  Ohio.  The 
answer  to  such  inquiries  is  that  folds  similar  and  equal  to  the  great  anti- 
clinals of  western  Pennsylvania  and  West  Virginia  were  never  formed 
and  consequently  will  never  be  found  in  Ohio.  Our  supply  of  this  much- 
prized  and  eagerly- sought  fuel,  whatever  it  shall  prove  to  be,  must  be 
independent  of  any  conspicuous  and  easily-traced  folds  in  our  surface 
rocks. 


CHAPTER    II. 


ORIGIN  AND  ACCUMULATION  OF  PETROLEUM  AND  NATURAL 

GAS. 

If  one  were  asked  what  subject  of  Ohio  geology  commands  the  largest 
amount  of  popular  consideration  and  interest  at  the  present  time,  the 
answer  would  not  be  hard  to  find.  The  subjects  of  natural  gas  and  petro- 
leum hold  decidedly  the  leading  place.  The  discovery  and  the  develop- 
ment of  seams  of  coal,  or  of  beds  of  iron-ore,  have  occasionally  aroused 
great  interest  in  particular  districts  or  neighborhoods  of  the  State,  espec- 
ially when  the  discoveries  have  been  unexpected;  but  never  before  has 
there  been  found  any  line  of  geological  questions  that  has  awakened  one- 
hundredth  part  of  the  general  interest  and  inquiry  which  has  been 
bestowed  upon  the  subjects  of  gas  and  oil  within  the  last  ten  years  in 
Ohio.  The  interest,  in  fact,  has  grown  to  be  universal.  There  is  scarcely 
a  township  of  the  State  that  it  has  not  invaded.  In  entire  sections,  as 
northwestern  Ohio,  embracing  several  thousand  square  miles  of  con- 
tinuous territory,  there  is  not  a  township  in  which  schemes  for  drilling 
wells  to  test  the  territory  have  not  b,een  agitated ;  and  in  a  number  of 
counties  every  township  has  been  actually  tested  by  the  drilling  of  one 
or  more  deep  wells.  There  is  no  population  so  stolid  or  unprogressive  as 
to  resist  the  introductions  of  these  questions ;  and  the  discussions  arising 
from  their  introduction  have  contributed  in  a  wonderful  degree  to  the 
general  diffusion  of  geological  information.  Since  this  excitement  began 
to  spread,  the  most  intelligent  and  wakeful-minded  citizens  of  many  of 
our  communities  have  acquired  a  great  deal  of  sound  knowledge  as  to  the 
order  and  character  of  the  strata  directly  underlying  the  several  districts 
of  the  State,  and  in  many  instances  they  have  developed  a  good  degree  of 
sagacity  in  the  interpretation  of  the  strata  and  structure  of  their  own  sec- 
tions. On  the  part  of  all  such  persons  there  has  been  a  great  demand  for 
all  available  geological  literature.  The  earlier  publications  of  the  State 
Geological  Survey  have  been  taken  down  from  the  shelves  where  they 


56  GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO. 

long  have  gathered  dust,  and  the  scattered  volumes  of  the  series  have  been 
made  into  numerous  complete  sets.  The  more  recent  publications  of  the 
Survey,  as  the  Preliminary  Report  of  1886,  and  Vol.  VI,  which  was  pub- 
lished in  1888,  both  of  which  are  entirely  devoted  to  these  subjects,  have 
been  eagerly  taken  up  and  studied  in  all  sections  of  the  State.  To  meet 
this  growing  demand  for  information,  the  newspapers  and  journals  have 
also  devoted  a  good  deal  of  space  to  facts  and  theories  pertaining  to  these 
subjects.]  tThese  latter  sources  of  information  are,  however,  compiled 
without  discrimination,  as  a  rule,  and  consequently,  exaggerated  and 
erroneous  [statements  abound  in  the  facts  that  they  present,  while  the 
theories  which  find  the  largest  currency  are  apt  to  be  crude  and  ill- 
grounded.  But  the  interest  in  the  subjects  is  undoubtedly  kept  alive  by 
these  agencies.  The  search  for  oil  and  gas  is  not  going  on  as  widely  or  as 
enthusiastically  at  the  present  time  as  in  some  recently  preceding  years ; 
but  the  interest  awakened  by  the  discoveries  of  the  last  decade  has  not  as 
yet  ebbed  to  any  great  extent.  It,  therefore,  seems  proper  and  necessary 
to  recognize  and  provide  for  this  interest  in  the  present  report.  This 
second  chapter  will  accordingly  be  devoted  to  considerations  pertaining 
to  the  nature  and  origin  of  petroleum  and  gas  and  to  the  modes  of  their 
accumulation  that  are  found  in  operation  in  the  rocks  of  the  earth's  crust. 

1.    CHEMICAL  COMPOSITION  OF  THE  BITUMENS. 

Natural  gas  and  petroleum  belong  in  a  line  of  products  in  the  crust 
of  the  earth,  to  which  we  give  the  name  of  bitumens.  Other  bodies  in 
the  same  list  are  the  extremely  volatile  naptha,  and  the  semi-fluid  maltha, 
or  mineral  tar,  and  the  solid  asphalt.  Still  other  gradations  are  some- 
times recognized  as  mineral  pitch  and  mineral  wax.  It  is  impossible  to 
draw  a  definite  line  of  demarkation  between  the  last-named  bodies  of  this 
list.  All  unquestionably  have  a  similar  general  history,  though  some 
qualification  may  be  made  for  natural  gas,  which  has  possibly  distinct 
sources  in  nature.  These  substances  are  found  under  the  same  general 
conditions,  and  all  the  steps  of  the  transformation^  of  one  to  the  other,  as 
from  petroleum  to  asphalt,  can  be  often  noted.  They  are  technically 
known  as  hydro-carbons,  and  they  belong  principally  to  the  methane 
series.  Carbon  constitutes  about  eighty-five  per  cent.,  and  hydrogen 
about  thirteen  per  cent,  of  their  general  composition.  A  small  percentage 
of  oxygen  appears  in  all  and  occasionally  a  minute  amount  of  nitrogen 
is  found  and  varying,  but  small  percentages  of  sulphur  also  occur  in  all 
or  at  least  in  most  petroleums.  When  sulphur  occurs  in  the  form  of  sul- 
phureted  hydrogen,  it  gives  to  the  oils  or  gas  that  contain  it  a  pronounced 
and  offensive  odor. 


PETROLEUM    AND    NATURAL    GAS.  57 

2.    EARLY  HISTORY  OF  THE  BITUMINOUS  SERIES. 

These  bituminous  substances,  especially  in  the  form  of  asphalt,  have 
been  known  to  mankind  very  widely  and  from  the  earliest  times.  The 
Egyptians  made  considerable  use  of  asphalt,  particularly  in  the  embalm- 
ing of  their  dead.  They  derived  their  supply,  according  to  the  old 
notices,  from  the  Dead  Sea. 

Another  ancient  use  of  asphalt  and  mineral  pitch  that  we  can  defi- 
nitely trace  is  to  be  found  in  the  ancient  cities  of  Mesopotamia.  Asphalt  is 
shown  to  have  been  generally  used  as  a  mortar  in  both  the  sacred  and 
profane  structures  of.  Baby  Ion.  All  the  earliest  histories  refer  to  this  use 
of  asphaltic  material,  and  even  the  fountains  from  which  the  supplies 
were  derived  have  been  definitely  pointed  out.  Herodotus  gives  many 
particulars  in  regard  to  this  production.  References  to  asphalt,  under  the 
name  of  pitch  and  slime,  occur  also  in  the  earliest  Hebrew  literature. 
Noah  is  said  to  have  covered  the  ark  within  and  without  with  pitch,  and 
the  reed  cradle  in  which  the  child  Moses  was  exposed  in  the  Valley  of  the 
Nile  was  protected  from  the  invasion  of  water  by  the  pitch  with  which  it 
was  coated.  In  the  building  of  the  Tower  of  Babel  also,  slime  or  pitch  is 
said  to  have  been  largely  used  for  mortar;  and,  again,  the  slime  pits  of 
the  Vale  of  Siddim  are  mentioned  in  a  single  passage.  The  bitumin- 
ous series  was  also  used  in  very  early  times  as  a  medicinal  remedy  or 
application,  as  many  references  testify. 

The  gaseous  form  of  the  series  also  attracted  attention  at  an  early  date. 
The  Apsheron  Peninsula,  which  is  so  famous  in  later  time  as  the  source 
of  the  Baku  oil,  gives  rise  to  many  escapes  of  gas  that  can  be  ignited  and 
which  will  continue  to  burn,  in  some  cases,  for  a  long  time.  As  early  as 
the  sixth  century,  the  fire  worshipers  of  Persia  are  known  to  have  had  a 
temple  established  over  one  of  these  gas  vents,  in  which  a  perpetual  fire 
from  these  natural  sources  was  maintained.  It  is  even  believed  by  some 
that  Zoroaster  himself  established  the  worship  of  sacred  fire  at  this  very 
point. 

India,  China  and  Japan  are  also  known  to  have  developed  sources  of 
these  substances  in  very  early  times,  and  to  have  continued  their  use  even 
to  the  present  day.  Gas  is  said  to  have  been  discovered  in  China  more 
than  2,000  years  ago  in  the  drilling  of  salt  wells  in  the  interior,  and  the  gas 
was  turned  to  economic  account  in  the  evaporation  of  the  brine  at  this 
early  time.  Petroleum  has  been  well  known  in  Japan  for  more  than  one 
thousand  years.  In  European  countries  also,  there  are  numerous  centers 
from  which  small  production  has  been  maintained  for  long  periods  of 
time.  Italy  and  Galicia  may  be  named  as  representatives.  In  both  of 
these  countries  petroleum  derived  from  natural  springs  has  been  turned 


58  GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO. 

to  some  small  account  as  a  source  of  light  and  heat  from  a  time  to  which 
the  memory  of  man  does  not  go  back. 

In  the  United  States  also,  the  occurrence  of  petroleum  and  gas  have 
been  noted  for  a  very  long  time.  The  earliest  authentic  reference  is  found 
in  the  letter  of  a  Franciscan  monk,  who  briefly  described  the  since  famous 
oil  spring  of  Cuba,  Allegany  county,  New  York.  His  letter  bears  date 
1629.  The  Aborigines  valued  these  products  of  the  natural  oil  springs 
very  highly  for  medicinal  application. 

The  petroleum  springs  of  Oil  Creek,  Pennsylvania,  also  attracted  early 
attention.  Mention  was  made  of  them  in  letters  and  reports  directed  to 
the  old  world  more  than  a  hundred  years  ago.  In  other  parts  of  the 
North  American  Continent  similar  observations  have  been  made,  and 
especially  around  the  shores  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  in  the  islands  per- 
taining thereto.  This  last  named  source  is  a  conspicuous  one.  Asphalt, 
tar  and  crude  oil,  one"  or  all,  have  long  been  known  as  occurring  in  Cuba, 
Barbadoes  and  Trinidad,  and  in  fact  in  many  other  localities. 

These  references  to  the  early  and  long-continued  use  of  the  several 
substances  belonging  to  the  bituminous  series  have  been  made  to  show 
how  erroneous  is  the  popular  opinion  which  counts  the  utilization  of  pe- 
troleum and  its  derivaties  as  a  modern  discovery.  It  has  been  shown  that 
crude  oil  has  been  employed  for  light  and  fuel  for  many  hundred  years 
in  Europe  and  Asia,  and  that  inflammable  gas  derived  from  and  associated 
with  the  oil  has  been  burned  for  perhaps  two  thousand  years  in  China 
and  in  the  Caspian  Basin ;  while  various  applications  and  uses  of  mineral 
pitch  and  asphalt  are  co-eval  with  the  oldest  records  of  civilization,  and 
which  very  likely  antedate  these  records.  The  other  continents  doubtless 
possess  like  accumulations  of  these  substances,  but  they  have  not  to  so 
large  an  extent  fallen  under  the  observations  of  civilized  man. 

3.     DISTRIBUTION  OF  THE  BITUMENS. 

It  has  been  shown  incidentally,  at  least,  that  very  many  and  widely 
separated  regions  give  rise  to  these  several  bituminous  products.  Each  of 
the  northern  continents  has  in  turn  been  shown  to  contain  one  or  other 
of  the  series  in  quantity,  and  the  geological  range  of  these  substances  has 
been  found  to  be  as  wide  as  is  their  geographical  distribution.  They  occur 
in  rocks  of  all  but  one  of  the  great  divisions  of  geological  time.  From  the 
oldest  division,  viz.,  the  crystalline  schists,  the  quartzites,  slates  and  gran- 
ites that  make  the  foundations  of  all  the  continents,  they  are  mainly  or 
wholly  wanting,  and  they  are  also  wanting,  as  a  rule,  in  formations  of 
later  age  that  have  been  metamorphosed  in  the  process  of  mountain 
making.  But  in  all  unaltered  strata,  from  the  Paleozoic  age  to  the  present 


PETROLEUM    AND    NATURAL    GAS.  59 

time,  in  shales,  sandstones  and  limestones,  petroleum  is  found  in  greater 
or  less  amount.  Distributed  in  minute  proportions  through  the  sub- 
stances of  the  rocks,  it  may  easily  escape  notice ;  but  when  intelligently 
looked  for,  and  with  proper  means  for  its  detection,  its  presence  is  revealed, 
and  though  the  percentage  is  small,  the  aggregate  is  often  vast.  If,  for 
example,  a  stratum  carries  but  one-tenth  of  one  per  cent,  of  petroleum,  the 
presence  of  this  substance  may  be  very  easily  overlooked ;  but  if  such 
stratum  is  a  few  hundred  feet  in  thickness,  every  square  mile  of  its  sur- 
face, even  with  this  proportion,  will  be  found  to  contain  more  oil  than 
has  ever  been  taken  out  from  a  like  area  of  the  most  productive  field. 
Disseminated  petroleum  is  well-nigh  universal;  it  is  only  the  accumula- 
tions that  are  rare. 

4.    LATER  HISTORY  OF  PETROLEUM  AND  ITS  DERIVATIVES. 

"  After  all  has  been  said  as  to  the  wide  use  that  has  been  made  of  the 
bitumens  from  the  earliest  times,  it  still  remains  true  that  the  important 
history  of  oil  and  gas  all  belongs  to  our  own  day.  The  modern  develop- 
ment of  these  substances  began  in  this  country  with  the  present  century. 
Oil  and  gas  were  first  found  here  in  large  quantity  in  connection  with 
the  search  for  brine  to  be  used  in  salt  manufacture,  derived  from  wells 
drilled  deep  into  the  rocks.  The  art  of  drilling  salt  wells  was  originated 
in  the  valley  of  the  great  Kanawha  River,  and  gas  and  oil,  one  or  both, 
were  invariably  found  associated  with  the  brine.  For  both  of  these 
substances  a  small  use  was  soon  found ;  but  the  large  production  that  was 
sometimes  afforded  interfered  with  the  main  purpose  of  the  wells  and  was 
therefore  counted  a  nuisance  to  be  abated,  or  if  this  were  impossible,  it 
might  even  become  a  serious  misfortune  to  the  well  driller. 

It  is  not  neceseary  to  trace  the  slow  stages  by  which  the  real  value  of 
petroleum  came  at  last  to  be  recognized.  This  took  place  at  about  the 
middle  of  the  century;  but  it  was  not  until  1858  that  a  well  was  drilled, 
the  sole  object  of  which  was  to  develop  as  large  a  production  of  oil  as 
possible.  This  well  was  located  in  the  valley  of  Oil  Creek,  Pennsylvania, 
in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  springs  that  had  yielded  oil  from  time 
immemorial.  The  exploration  was  carried  on  under  the  personal  direc- 
tion of  Col.  E.  F.  Drake.  The  search  was  successful,  and  the  production  of 
petroleum  on  the  large  scale  dates  from  this  time.  The  Drake  Well  marks 
the  beginning  of  one  of  the  most  important  economic  movements  of  the 
century.  From  this  new  supply  of  light  and  power,  very  large  additions 
have  been  made  to  the  comfort  and  service  of  the  civilized  world.  Some 
of  the  great  fortunes  of  our  day,  also,  which  are  greater  than  any  ever 
gathered  in  any  previous  age,  have  been  derived  directly  or  indirectly 
from  the  new  production,  and  the  largest  and  most  successful  of  the  busi- 


6O  GEOLOGY   OF   OHIO. 

ness  combinations  which  make  so  important  a  feature  of  our  time  is 
founded  on  this  same  interest. 

The  introduction  of  natural  gas  on  a  large  scale,  as  a  source  of 
domestic  and  manufacturing  fuel,  constitutes  the  latest,  and  perhaps  on 
the  whole,  the  most  important  chapter  in  this  remarkable  history. 
Natural  gas  is  not  so  important  in  itself,  however,  as  in  the  relations 
which  it  bears  to  the  replacement  of  solid  by  gaseous  fuel.  It  is  educat- 
ing many  of  our  most  progressive  communities  to  the  unspeakable  ad- 
vantages of  the  gaseous  form  of  heat  and  power.  It  is  to  be  hoped  and 
expected  that  when  the  sources  of  natural  gas  fail,  the  cities  that  have 
enjoyed  the  wonderful  advantages  which  it  always  brings  will  be  led  to 
devise  practicable  methods  for  maintaining  the  use  of  gaseous  fuel  in 
some  other  form.  It  will  be  a  long  step  backward  if  the  systems  of  dis- 
tribution and  use  of  the  natural  product  that  have  been  laid  at  such  great 
expense,  shall  be  abandoned  the  moment  the  necessarily  short-lived  reser- 
voirs run  dry.  But  these  unfavorable  results  do  not  seem  probable  at  the 
present  time.  There  is  great  interest  in  all  questions  pertaining  to  the 
manufacture  of  gas  for  fuel  purposes,  and  expensive  experiments  are 
going  forward  on  the  large  scale,  out  of  which  we  are  certain  to  learn 
what  are  the  most  available  substances  and  processes  for  the  replacement 
of  the  gas  wells  of  the  several  fields  as  they  reach  exhaustion. 

5.    ORIGIN  OF  PETROLEUM  AND  GAS. 

What  is  the  mode  of  origin  of  petroleum  and  gas  ?  From  what  sub- 
stances and  by  what  agencies  in  nature  are  they  formed  ?  To  these  ques- 
tions it  is  not  possible  at  the  present  time  to  give  answers  which  will 
command  any  thing  like  universal  acceptance  in  the  scientific  world.  In 
other  words,  we  have  not  yet  attained  full,  accurate  and  final  knowledge 
upon  these  subjects.  While  the  same  thing  can  be  said  of  most  of  the 
questions  which  geology  raises,  it  is  still  true  that  at  present  there  is  more 
discrepancy  in  the  views  of  those  who  have  a  right,  by  reason  of  their  knowl- 
edge, to  form  opinions  upon  these  questions  than  in  most  other  fields  of 
inquiry.  Widely  divergent  theories  have  more  or  less  currency  in  the 
scientific  world,  but  after  all  the  case  is  not  as  discouraging  as  might  at 
first  sight  appear.  An  examination  of  the  leading  theories  that  have 
been  broached  during  the  last  twenty-five  years,  shows  that  they  are 
divisible  into  two  main  classes :  those,  viz.,  (1)  that  have  been  originated 
by  chemists  and  that  are  based  on  assumed  chemical  possibilities,  with 
but  little  knowledge  of  or  reference  to  the  facts  of  their  geological  occur- 
rence ;  and  (2)  those  that  have  been  deducted  by  geologists  from  a  study  of 
the  facts  of  their  occurrence  and  association.  These  classes  of  theories 
can  be  conveniently  distinguished  as  chemical  and  geological  theories, 


PETROLEUM    AND   NATURAL    GAS.  6 1 

though  as  a  matter  of  course,  chemical  laws  are  in  every  way  as  directly 
concerned  in  the  process  to  which  the  second  group  of  theories  appeals  as 
in  the  process  of  the  first  group.  Each  of  these  classes  of  theories]  will 
be  briefly  discussed. 

1.     Chemical  Theories. 

Under  this  head  the  theories  of  two  celebrated  chemists  which  have 
obtained  wide  circulation  in  our  day  will  be  presented.  One  of  them  was 
originated  by  Berthelot,  a  distinguished  French  chemist,  and  the  other  by 
an  equally  distinguished  Russian  chemist,  viz.,  Dr.  Mendeljeff,  of  St. 
Petersburg. 

(a)  Berthelot  published  in  1866  a  theory  which,  in  his  view,  was 
adequate  to  account  for  all  natural  hydrocarbons  by  the  action  of  chemi- 
cal force  on  inorganic  matter.  He  apparently  adopted  a  suggestion  of 
Sir  Humphry  Davy,  which  never  found  currency  in  the  scientific  world, 
viz.,  that  the  alkali  metals,  potassium  and  sodium,  may  exist  in  the  in- 
terior of  the  earth  in  a  free  or  uncombined  state.  If  at  considerable 
depths,  they  would  necessarily  have  a  high  temperature ;  and  further,  if 
surface  water  carrying  carbonic  acid  in  solution,  as  all  natural  waters  do, 
should  find  access  to  them,  it  is  easy  to  show  the  chemical  reactions  by 
which  some  of  the  hydrocarbon  series  would  be  generated. 

The  only  solid  ground  in  all  this  theory  is  the  last  point.  It  is 
entirely  true  that  various  compounds  of  the  bituminous  series  can  be 
formed  artificially.  This  discovery  and  others  of  like  character  associated 
with  it  constitute  one  of  the  most  marked  advances  of  chemistry.  But 
the  remaining  elements  of  the  theory,  and  particularly  its  main  postulate 
that  the  alkali  metals  exist  uncombined  in  the  interior  of  the  earth,  have 
never  commanded  any  large  acceptance  from  those  whose  judgment  on 
such  points  is  best  entitled  to  consideration.  In  any  case,  it  is  altogether 
un verifiable,  and  can  never  advance  in  the  minds  of  most  men  beyond 
the  rank  of  a  highly  improbable  hypothesis. 

(6)  The  second  theory  to  be  named  in  this  class  was  proposed  by 
Dr.  Mendeljeff  in  1877.  It  has  attracted  a  much  larger  share  of  attention 
from  the  scientific  world  than  the  theory  above  described,  probably  be- 
cause it  seems  less  inherently  improbable  in  its  main  features.  Moreover, 
its  author  is  still  urging  it  in  various  forms  on  the  attention  of  the  world. 
Particularly  he  claims  that  it  is  in  harmony  with  all  the  present  facts  of 
experience  in  the  great  Russian  oil  field. 

Dr.  Mendeljeff  holds  that  petroleum  is  never  of  organic  origin,  but  is 
as  purely  a  product  of  chemical  affinity,  acting  on  inorganic  substances, 
as  a  vein  stone  or  an  ore.  A  re-statement  of  his  theory  was  made  at  con- 
siderable length  in  the  presidential  address  of  the  Mechanical  Science 


62  GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO. 

section  of  the  British  Association  in  September,  1889,  by  Mr.  William 
Anderson.  From  this  re-statement  a  good  synopsis  of  the  theory  as  ap- 
parently now  held  by  the  author  can  be  obtained.  Correspondence  with 
him  in  regard  to  the  subject  was  published  in  the  same  connection,  in 
which  the  special  features  of  his  theory  were  again  repeated.  Inasmuch 
as  this  is  by  far  the  most  prominent  theory  of  the  class  to  which  it 
belongs,  a  full  account  of  it  will  here  be  given,  mainly  in  the  words  of 
Mr.  Anderson.  If  it  fails  to  bear  examination  there  is  certainly  no  hope 
for  any  other  theory  that  falls  under  this  head. 

"  Dr.  Mendeljeff  commences  his  essay  by  the  statement  that  most  per- 
sons assume,  without  any  special  reason,  excepting,  perhaps,  its  chemical 
composition,  that  naphtha,  like  coal,  has  a  vegetable  origin.  He  combats 
this  hypothesis,  and  points  out  in  the  first  place  that  naphtha  must  have 
been  formed  in  the  depths  of  the  earth.  -  It  could  not  have  been  produced 
on  the  surface,  because  it  would  have  evaporated  ;  nor  over  a  sea-bottom, 
because  it  would  have  floated  up  and  been  dissipated  by  the  same  means. 
In  the  next  place  he  shows  that  naphtha  must  have  been  formed  beneath 
the  very  site  on  which  it  is  found;  that  it  could  not  have  come  from  a 
distance,  like  so  many  other  geological  deposits,  and  for  the  reasons  given 
above,  namely,  that  it  could  not  be  water-borne,  and  could  not  have 
flowed  along  the  surface;  while  in  the  superficial  sands  in  which  it  is 
generally  found  no  one  has  ever  discovered  the  presence  of  organized 
matter  in  sufficiently  large  masses  to  have  served  as  a  source  for  the 
enormous  quantity  of  oil  and  gas  yielded  in  some  districts;  and  hence  it 
is  most  probable  that  it  has  risen  from  much  greater  depths  under  the  in- 
fluence of  its  own  gaseous  pressure,  or  floated  up  upon  the  surface  of 
water  with  which  it  is  so  frequently  associated. 

"  The  oil-bearing  strata  in  Europe  belong  chiefly  to  the  tertiary  or 
later  geological  epochs ;  so  that  it  is  conceivable  that  in  these  strata,  or  in 
those  immediately  below  them,  carboniferous  deposits  may  exist,  and 
may  be  the  sources  of  the  oil.  But  in  America  and  in  Canada  the  oil-bear- 
ing sands  are  found  in  the  Devonian  and  Silurian  formations,  which  are 
either  destitute  of  organic  remains  or  contain  them  in  insignificant 
quantities.  Yet,  if  the  immense  masses  of  hydrocarbons  have  been  pro- 
duced by  chemical  changes  in  carboniferous  beds  equally  large  masses  of 
solid  carboniferous  remains  must  still  exist;  but  of  this  there  is  absolutely 
no  evidence,  while  cases  occur  in  Pennsylvania  where  oil  is  obtained 
from  the  Devonian  rocks  underlying  compact  clay  beds  on  which  rest 
coal- bearing  strata.  Had  the  oil  been  derived  from  the  coal  it  certainly 
would  not  have  made  its  way  downwards;  much  less  would  it  have 
penetrated  an  impermeable  stratum  of  clay.  The  conclusion  arrived  at 


PETROLEUM    AND    NATURAL    GAS.  63 

is,  that  it  is  impossible  to  ascribe  the  formation  of  naphtha  to  chemical 
changes  produced  by  heat  and  pressure  in  ancient  organized  remains. 

"  One  of  the  first  indices  to  the  solution  of  the  question  lies  in  the 
situation  of  the  oil-bearing  regions.  They  always  occur  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of,  and  run  parallel  to,  mountain  ranges:  as,  for  example,  in  Penn- 
sylvania, along  the  Alleghanies;  in  Russia,,  along  the  Caucasus.  The 
crests  of  the  ranges,  formed  originally  of  horizontal  strata  which  had  been 
forced  up  by  internal  pressure,  must  have  been  cracked  and  dislocated, 
the  fissures  widening  outwards,  while  similar  cracks  must  have  been 
formed  at  the  bases  of  the  ranges ;  but  the  fissures  would  widen  down- 
wards, and  would  form  channels  and  cavities,  into  which  naphtha,  formed 
in  the  depths  to  which  the  fissures  descended,  would  rise  and  manifest 
itself,  especially  in  localities  where  the  surface  -had  been  sufficiently 
lowered  by  denudation  or  otherwise. 

"It  is  in  the  lowest  depths  of  these  fissures  that  we  must  seek  the 
laboratories  in  which  the  oil  is  formed;  and,  once  produced,  it  must 
inevitably  rise  to  the  surface,  whether  forced  up  by  its  own  pent-up  gases 
or  vapors,  or  floated  up  by  associated  water.  In  some  instances  the  oil 
penetrating  or  soaking  through  the  surface-layers  loses  its  most  volatile 
constituents  by  evaporation,  and  in  consequence  deposits  of  pitch,  of  car- 
boniferous shales,  and  asphalt,  take  place ;  in  other  cases,  the  oil,  impreg- 
nating sands  at  a  lower  level,  is  often  found  under  great  pressure,  and 
associated  with  forms  of  itself  in  a  permanently  gaseous  state.  This  oil 
may  be  distributed  widely,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  formations  or 
the  disturbances  to  which  they  have  been  subjected ;  but  the  presence  of 
petroleum  is  not  in  any  way  connected  with  the  geological  age  of  the  oil- 
bearing  strata,  it  is  simply  the  result  of  physical  condition  and  of  surface 
structure. 

"  According  to  the  views  of  Laplace,  the  planetary  system  has  been 
formed  from  incandescent  matter  torn  from  the  solar  equatorial  regions. 
In  the  first  instance",  this  matter  formed  a  ring  analogous  to  those  which 
we  now  see  surrounding  Saturn,  and  consisted  of  all  kinds  of  substances 
at  a  high  temperature ;  and  from  this  mass  a  sphere  of  vapors,  of  larger 
diameter  than  the  earth  now  has,  was  gradually  separated.  The  various 
vapors  and  gases  which,  diffused  through  each  other,  formed  at  first  an 
atmosphere  round  an  imaginary  centre,  gradually  assumed  the  form  of  a 
liquid  globe,  and  exerted  pressures  incomparably  higher  than  those  which 
we  experience  now  at  the  base  of  our  present  atmosphere.  According  to 
Dalton's  laws,  gases,  when  diffused  through  each  other,  behave  as  if  they 
were  separate ;  hence  the  lighter  gases  would  preponderate  in  the  outer 
regions  of  the  vaporous  globe,  while  the  heavier  ones  would  accumulate 
to  a  larger  extent  at  the  central  portion ;  and  at  the  same  time  the  gases 


64  GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO. 

circulating  from  the  centre  to  the  circumference  would  expand,  perform 
work,  would  cool  in  consequence,  and  at  some  period  would  assume  the 
liquid  or  even  the  solid  state,  just  as  we  find  the  vapor  of  water  diffused 
through  our  present  atmosphere  does  now.  That  which  is  true  of  changes 
of  physical  condition,  Henri  St.  Claire  Deville,  in  his  brilliant  theory  of 
dissociation,  has  shown  to  be  equally  true  with  respect  to  chemical 
changes ;  and  the  cooling  of  the  vapors  forming  the  earth  while  in  its 
gaseous  condition  was  necessarily  accompanied  by  chemical  combinations, 
which  took  place  chiefly  on  the  outer  surface,  where  oxides  of  the  metals 
were  formed ;  and,  as  these  are  generally  less  volatile  than  the  metals 
themselves,  they  were  precipitated  on  to  what  there  then  was  of  liquid  or 
solid  of  the  earth,  in  the  form  of  metallic  rain  or  snow,  and  were  again 
probably  decomposed,  in  part  at  least,  to  their  vaporous  condition.  The 
necessary  consequence  of  this  action  is  that  the  inner  regions  of  the  earth 
must  consist  of  substances  the  vapors  of  which  have  high  specific  densities 
and  high  molecular  weights — that  is  to  say,  composed  of  elements  having 
high  atomic  weights — and  that  the  heavier  elementary  substances  would 
collect  near  the  centre,  while  the  lighter  ones  would  be  found  nearer  the 
surface.  Our  knowledge  of  the  earth's  crust  extends  but  to  an  insignifi- 
cant distance ;  yet,  as  far  as  we  do  know  it,  we  find  that  the  arrangement 
above  indicated  prevails.  Hydrogen,  carbon,  nitrogen,  oxygen,  sodium, 
magnesium,  aluminium,  silicon,  phosphorus,  sulphur,  clorine,  potassium, 
calcium — substances  whose  atomic  weights  range  from  one  to  forty — 
became  condensed,  entered  into  every  conceivable  combination  with  each 
other,  and  produced  substances  the  specific  gravity  of  which  averages 
about  two  and  one-half,  never  exceeds  four,  and  are  found  near  the  imme- 
diate surface  of  the  globe. 

"  But  the  mean  specific  gravity  of  the  earth  as  determined  by  Maske- 
lyne,  Cavendish,  and  others,  certainly  exceeds  five,  and  consequently  the 
inner  portion  of  our  globe  must  be  composed  of  substances  heavier  than 
those  existing  on  the  surface ;  and  such  substances  are  only  to  be  found 
among  the  elements  with  high  atomic  weights.  The  question  arises, 
'  What  elements  of  this  character  are  we  likely  to  find  in  the  depth  of  the 
earth  ? '  In  the  first  place,  since  gases  diffuse  through  each  other,  a  certain 
proportion  of  the  elements  of  hight  atomic  weight  will  also  be  found  on 
the  surface  of  the  earth.  Second,  the  elements  forming  the  bulk  of  the 
earth  must  be  found  in  the  atmosphere  of  the  sun — if,  indeed,  the  earth 
once  formed  part  of  its  atmosphere.  Of  all  the  elements,  iron,  with  a 
specific  gravity  exceeding  seven,  and  with  an  atomic  weight  of  fifty-six, 
corresponds  best  with  these  requirements,  for  it  is  found  in  abundance  on 
the  surface  of  the  earth ;  and  the  spectroscope  has  revealed  the  very  marked 
presence  of  iron  in  the  sun,  where  it  must  be  partly  in  the  fluid  and  partly 


PETROLEUM    AND    NATURAL    GAS.  65 

in  the  gaseous  state,  and  consequently  iron  in  large  masses  must  exist  in 
the  earth ;  so  that  the  mean  specific  gravity  of  our  planet  may  well  be 
five,  the  value  of  which  has  been  determined  by  independent  means. 

"  It  is  not  easy,  however,  to  define  in  what  condition  the  mass  of  iron 
which  exists  in  the  heart  of  the  earth  is  likely  to  be.  Iron  is  capable  of 
forming  a  vast  number  of  combinations,  depending  on  the  relative  propor- 
tion of  the  various  elements  present.  Thus,  in  the  blast  furnace,  oxygen, 
carbon,  nitrogen,  calcium,  silicon  and  iron  are  associated,  and  produced 
under  the  action  of  heat,  besides  various  gases,  a  carburet  of  iron  and  slag, 
the  latter  containing  chiefly  silicon,  calcium  and  oxygen ;  that  is  to  say, 
substances  similar  to  those  which  form  the  bulk  of  the  earth.  But  these 
same  elements,  if  there  be  an  excess  of  oxygen,  will  not  yield  any  carburet 
of  iron  ;  and  the  same  result  ,will  follow  if  there  be  a  deficiency  of  silicon 
and  calcium,  because  of  the  large  proportion  of  oxygen  which  they  appro- 
priate. In  the  same  way,  during  the  cooling  of  the  earth,  if  oxygen,  car- 
bon and  iron  were  associated,  and  if  the  carbon  were  in  excess  of  the 
oxygen,  the  greater  part  of  the  carbon  would  escape  in  the  gaseous  state, 
while  the  remaining  part  would  unite  with  the  iron.  It  is  certain  that 
in  the  heart  of  the  earth  there  must  have  been  a  deficiency  of  oxygen, 
because  of  its  low  specific  gravity ;  and  the  argument  is  supported  by  the 
fact  that  free  oxygen  and  its  compounds,  with  the  lighter  elements,  abound 
on  the  surface.  Further,  it  must  be  presumed  that  much  of  the  iron  ex- 
isting at  great  depths  must  be  covered  over  and  protected  from  oxygen  by 
a  coating  of  slag ;  so  that,  taking  all  these  considerations  into  account,  it 
is  reasonable  to  conclude  that  deep  down  in  the  earth  there  exists  large 
masses  of  iron,  in  part  at  least  in  the  metallic  state,  or  combined  with 
carbon. 

"  The  above  views  receive  considerable  confirmation  from  the  compo- 
sition of  meteoric  matter;  for  it  also  forms  a  portion  of  the  solar  system, 
and  originated,  like  the  earth,  from  out  of  the  solar  atmosphere.  Meteor- 
ites are  most  probably  fragments  of  planets,  and  a  large  proportion  of 
them  include  iron  in  their  composition,  often  as  carbides,  in  the  same 
form  as  ordinary  cast  iron ;  that  is  to  say,  a  part  of  the  carbon  is  free,  and 
a  part  is  in  chemical  union  with  the  iron.  It  has  been  shown,  besides, 
that  all  basalts  contain  iron,  and  basalts  are  nothing  more  than  lavas  forced 
by  volcanic  eruptions  from  the  heart  of  the  earth  to  its  surface.  The  same 
causes  may  have  led  to  the  existence  of  combinations  of  carbon  with  other 
metals. 

"  The  process  of  the  formation  of  petroleum  seems  to  be  the  following  : 
It  is  generally  admitted  that  the  crust  of  the  earth  is  very  thin  in  com- 
parison with  the  diameter  of  the  latter,  and  that  this  crust  encloses  soft  or 
5        G. 


66  GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO. 

fluid  substances,  among  which  the  carbides  of  iron  and  of  other  metals 
find  a  place.  When,  in  consequence  of  cooling  or  some  other  cause,  a 
fissure  takes  place  through  which  a  mountain-range  is  protruded,  the 
crust  of  the  earth  is  bent,  and  at  the  foot  of  the  hills  fissures  are  formed  ; 
or,  at  any  rate,  the  continuity  of  the  rocky  layers  is  disturbed,  and  they 
are  rendered  more  or  less  porous,  so  that  surface  waters  are  able  to  make 
their  way  deep  into  the  bowels  of  the  earth,  and  to  reach  occasionally  the 
heated  deposits  of  metallic  carbides,  which  may  exist  either  in  a  sepa 
rated  condition,  or  blended  with  other  matter.  Under  such  circumstances, 
it  is  easy  to  see  what  must  take  place.  Iron,  or  whatever  other  metal  may 
be  present,  forms  an  oxide  with  the  oxygen  of  the  water.  Hydrogen  is 
either  set  free  or  combined  with  the  carbon  which  was  associated  with  the 
metal,  and  becomes  a  volatile  substance ;  that  is,  naphtha.  The  water 
which  had  penetrated  down  to  the  incandescent  mass  was  changed  into 
steam,  a  portion  of  which  found  its  way  to  the  porous  substances  with 
which  the  fissures  were  filled,  and  carried  with  it  the  vapors  of  the  newly 
formed  hydrocarbons ;  and  this  mixture  of  vapors  was  condensed  wholly 
or  in  part  as  soon  as  it  reached  the  cooler  strata.  The  chemical  composi- 
tion of  the  hydrocarbons  produced  will  depend  upon  the  conditions  of 
temperature  and  pressure  under  which  they  are  formed.  It  is  obvious  that 
these  may  vary  between  very  wide  limits ;  and  hence  it  is  that  mineral 
oils,  mineral  pitch,  ozokerite,  and  similar  products  differ  so  greatly  from 
each  other  in  the  relative  proportions  of  hydrogen  and  carbon.  I  may 
mention  that  artificial  petroleum  has  been  frequently  prepared  by  a 
process  analogous  to  that  described  above. 

"  Such  is  the  theory  of  the  distinguished  philosopher,  who  has  framed 
it  not  alone  upon  his  wide  chemical  knowledge,  but  also  upon  the 
practical  experience  derived  from  visiting  officially  the  principal  oil-pro- 
ducing districts  of  Europe  and  America,  from  discussing  the  subject  with 
able  men  deeply  interested  in  the  oil  industry,  and  from  collecting  all  the 
available  literature  on  the  subject.  It  is  needless  to  remark  that  Dr. 
Mendeljeffs  views  are  not  shared  by  every  competent  authority;  never- 
theless the  remarkable  permanence  of  oil  wells,  the  apparently  inexhaust- 
ible evolution  of  hydrocarbon  gases  in  certain  regions,  almost  forces  one 
to  believe  that  hydrocarbon  products  must  be  forming  as  fast  as  they  are 
consumed,  that  there  is  little  danger  of  the  demand  ever  exceeding  the 
supply,  and  that  there  is  every  prospect  of  oil  being  found  in  almost 
every  portion  of  the  surface  of  the  earth,  especially  in  the  vicinity  of 
great  geological  disturbances.  The  extraordinary  pressures,  amounting 
to  three  hundred  pounds  per  square  inch,  which  have  been  measured  in 
some  wells,  seem  to  me  to  yield  conclusive  evidence  of  the  impermeability 
of  the  strata  from  under  which  the  oil  has  been  forced  up,  and  tend  to 


PETROLEUM    AND    NATURAL    GAS.  67 

Confirm  the  view  that  it  must  have  been  formed  in  regions  far  below  any 
which  could  have  contained  organic  remains  " 

Many  interesting  facts  and  speculations  of  science  are  stated  in  the 
paragraphs  quoted  above,  but  most  of  their  applications  to  the  produc- 
tion of  oil  and  gas  are  wide  of  the  mark,  so  far,  at  least,  as  American  ex- 
perience is  concerned  and  particularly  as  far  as  they  relate  to  the  produc- 
tion of  these  substances  in  Ohio.  Indeed,  we  should  be  obliged  to  oppose 
and  deny  almost  every  individual  statement  that  is  applied  to  the  sub- 
stances under  consideration  which  these  paragraphs  contain.  "One 
of  the  first  indices  to  the  solution  of  the  question,"  Dr.  Mendeljeff  says, 
"  lies  in  the  situation  of  the  oil-bearing  regions.  They  always  occur  in 
the  neighborhood  of  and  run  parallel  to  mountain  ranges."  He  then 
goes  on  to  show  that  only  where  the  rocks  are  deeply  broken  and  where 
fissures  penetrate  them  to  great  depth,  can  petroleum  find  access  to  the 
surface. 

So  far  is  this  from  being  true,  that  not  a  barrel  of  oil  nor  a  foot  of  gas 
is  found  where  the  rocks  show  any  trace  of  such  fractures  as  are  here  de- 
scribed. There  are  wide  areas  in  Pennsylvania,  for  example,  adjoining 
the  productive  oil  fields,  in  which  the  rocks  have  just  the  structure  that 
is  here  pointed  out ;  but  all  of  these  areas  without  exception  are  entirely 
destitute  of  gas  and  oil,  so  far  as  present  experience  goes.  It  is  true  that 
the  oil  and  gas  of  the  Pennsylvania  field  is  found  in  low  arches  or  folds, 
and  that  these  arches  are  approximately  parallel  to  the  main  folds  of  the 
Allegheny  Mountains ;  but  the  sides  of  these  arches  slope,  as  a  rule,  less 
than  one  degree,  and  they  are  found  productive  only  where  the  move- 
ments which  have  originated  them  are  of  the  lowest  order  that  could  be 
called  movements  at  all. 

When  we  come  to  the  present  productive  fields  of  Ohio,  we  find 
neither  mountains  nor  the  semblance  of  mountains  within  five  hundred 
miles  of  them.  But,  instead,  the  oil  and  gas  flow  forth  from  as  nearly 
level  a  portion  of  the  earth's  surface  as  is  to  be  found  in  this  entire  portion 
of  the  Mississippi  Valley.  The  range  of  elevation  for  areas  of  a  thousand 
square  miles  will  not  exceed  one  hundred  feet.  A  single  well  character- 
ized but  deeply  buried  monocline  of  less  than  two  hundred  feet  down- 
throw, accomplished  in  one-third  of  a  mile,  it  is  true,  traverses  the  Find- 
lay  field,  as  the  drill  has  shown,  and  it  is  found  to  be  connected  in  a  very 
important  way  with  the  accumulation  of  gas  and  oil  in  this  district.  But 
in  other  portions  of  the  new  oil  territory,  as  Lima,  no  such  structure  is 
found,  and  the  dip  of  the  oil  rock  is  reduced  for  many  square  miles 
nearly  to  zero,  and  in  fact,  as  will  afterwards  be  shown,  the  horizontal  or 
terrace  structure  of  the  reservoir  rocks  is  one  of  the  chief  factors  in  the 
large  accumulation  of  oil.  The  slopes,  moreover,  by  which  the  terraces 


68  GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO. 

are  bounded  are,  as  a  rule,  very  gentle  and  regular,  never  reaching  the 
amount  of  one  degree. 

So  far  as  this  part  of  the  theory'is  concerned,  it  not  only  fails  to  con- 
form to  American  experience,  but  on  the  other  hand  the  facts  of  our  ex- 
perience are  diametrically  opposed  to  its  postulate. 

Again,  Dr.  Mendeljeff  declares  that  petroleum  could  not  have  been 
produced  on  the  surface  of  the  earth  because  it  would  have  evaporated ; 
nor  on  the  sea-floor,  because  it  would  have  floated  to  the  surface  and  been 
dissipated  there.  In  these  speculations,  he  ignores  the  absorbing  power  of 
clay  which  is  found  on  every  shore  and  in  every  stream  that  runs  into 
the  sea.  Dr.  Joseph  Leidy,  the  distinguished  naturalist,  noted  a  few  years 
ago  that  the  bed  of  the  Schuylkill  River  within  the  city  limits  of  Phila- 
delphia was  covered  by  a  deposit  of  dark  and  oily  clay.  Upon  due  in- 
vestigation, the  oil  was  found  to  have  been  derived  from  the  waste  of  the 
city  gas  works.  But,  as  Mendeljeff  asserts,  we  should  naturally  expect 
this  oil  to  float  upon  the  surface  of  the  waters  to  which  it  found  access 
and  there  be  evaporated.  How,  then,  did  it  find  its  way  to  the  bottom  of 
the  river  and  become  accumulated  there?  The  answer  is  that  the  clay 
floating  in  the  stream  absorbed  the  oil  and  sank  with  it  to  the  river  bed, 
especially  in  the  eddies  and  slack  portions  of  the  current.  This  observa- 
tion of  Dr.  Leidy  proves  to  be  of  great  significance  and  value  in  the  ex- 
planation of  petroleum  accumulation.  It  cuts  away  the  ground  from 
under  Dr.  Mendeljeff 's  objection  and  leaves  no  force  to  it  whatever. 
Petroleum,  whether  formed  above  or  beneath  the  surface  of  the  sea  would 
in  every  case  certainly  be  absorbed  by  the  floating  particles  of  clay  and 
would  thus  find  its  way  to  a  permanent  deposit  on  the  sea-floor.  The 
Ohio  shale,  for  example,  is  the  largest  clay  deposit  of  our  geological 
column,  and  it  is  charged  with  this  disseminated  petroleum  from  top  to 
bottom.  We  can  recover  from  portions  of  it  at  least  one-fifth  of  one  per- 
cent, of  crude  oil.  In  point  of  fact,  petroleum  is  so  widely  distributed  in 
nature  that  we  may  say  that  it  is  absent  only  from  the  crystalline  rocks 
and  from  the  broken  and  fissured  strata  which  the  theory  now  under  con- 
sideration makes  its  chief  repository.  In  all  other  rocks,  and  especially 
in  all  shales  and  limestones,  it  is  invariably  present  and  can  always  be 
detected  in  them  by  appropriate  means  of  investigation. 

Again,  the  present  theory  demands  that  the  storage  should  be  pro- 
vided for  in  fissures  and  rents  formed  in  the  rocks.  The  entire  range  of 
the  facts  of  American  experience  demonstrates  the  contrary.  All  ac- 
cumulation has  been  abundantly  proved  to  be  dependent  upon  and 
strictly  conditioned  by  the  natural  porosity  of  the  rocks  that  constitute 
the  reservoir.  In  the  earlier  and  cruder  stages  of  our  experience  the  same 
notion,  that  is  expressed  above,  found  entrance  to  the  minds  of  those 


PETROLEUM    AND    NATURAL    GAS.  69 

who  were  engaged  in  either  the  practical  or  scientific  study  of  the  subject, 
and  "fissures"  figured  largely  in  the  literature  of  this  early  time,  more 
especially  among  the  practical  men  engaged  in  oil  production ;  but  ad- 
vancing knowledge  has  swept  all  this  away  as  entirely  destitute  of  founda- 
tion. In  every  field  the  fact  is  demonstrable  that  the  productiveness  of 
the  oil  rock  is  gauged  by  its  porosity.  This  porosity  is  secured  either  by 
the  natural  character  of  the  material,  as  in  sandstones  and  conglomerates 
or  crinoidal  limestones,  or  by  the  acquired  characteristics  of  a  formation, 
as  where  a  bed  of  true  limestone  has  been  converted  into  a  dolomitic 
limestone.  In  this  last  named  change  small  cavities  in  great  numbers 
are  left  between  the  interlocking  points  of  the  re-placing  crystals,  equal- 
ing or  even  greatly  exceeding  the  spaces  between  grains  of  sand  or  peb- 
bles. If  caverns  and  fissures  were  the  store  houses,  according  to  the 
theory  now  discussed,  there  would  be  no  need  of  porous  rocks,  and 
the  relation  already  described  between  them  and  the  productive  oil  fields 
would  be  altogether  inexplicable. 

When  the  theory  is  examined  with  reference  to  its  remaining  rela- 
tions to  dynamic  geology,  it  is  found  to  be  equally  out  of  harmony  with 
all  modern  views.  The  author  seems  to  have  adopted  bodily  the  cruder 
speculations  of  an  earlier  time,  many  of  which  have  been  shown  to  be 
entirely  untenable  and  which  therefore  have  no  standing  in  geological 
science  to-day.  His  discussion,  based  upon  a  thin  crust  of  the  earth, 
ignores  all  the  multiplied  proofs  of  the  last  twenty-five  years,  that  this 
crust  can  not  be  less  than  500  to  1,000  miles  in  thickness,  and  that  it  is 
highly  probable  that  the  globe  solidified  from  the  center  outwards.  To 
speak,  as  the  author  does,  of  a  fissure  taking  place  through  which  a 
mountain  range  is  protruded,  is  to  adopt  ideas  as  obsolete  as  the  phlogiston 
theory  in  chemistry,  or  the  instantaneous  and  miraculous  creation  of 
species  in  the  living  world.  Such  views  are  entirely  irreconcilable  with 
the  best  knowledge  of  our  day. 

The  only  semblance  of  foundation  that  it  can  borrow  from  modern 
geological  theories  is  that  part  of  it  which  supposes  iron  to  exist  uncom- 
bined  in  large  quantities  at  considerable  depths  beneath  the  surface  of  the 
earth.  A  few  geologists  hold  some  such  view,  and  a  measure  of  support 
can  accordingly  be  brought  forward  in  favor  of  it  as  a  theoretical  opinion. 
But  as  to  the  existence  of  carburet  of  iron  in  this  situation  there  are  no 
known  facts  outside  of  meteorites  that  point  to  such  a  combination.  All 
that  part  of  the  theory  which,  indeed,  is  the  vital  part,  is  pure  assump- 
tion, and  assumption  of  the  sort  that  can  never  enter  into  any  explana- 
tion which  is  to  obtain  acceptance  in  the  modern  scientific  world.  There 
is  a  vast  preponderance  of  probability  against  it,  even  upon  the  side  from 
which  it  draws  all  its  support. 


7<D  GEOLOGY     OF     OHIO. 

The  further  statements  of  Mr.  Anderson,  in  defense  of  the  theory,, 
that  "the  remarkable  permanency  of  oil  fields,  and  the  apparently 
inexhaustible  evolution  of  hydrocarbon  gases  in  certain  regions,  almost 
force  one  to  believe  that  the  hydrocarbon  products  must  be  formed  as  fast 
as  they  are  consumed,  and  that  there  is  little  danger  of  the  demand  ever 
exceeding  the  supply,"  is  almost  ludicrously  at  variance  with  the  whole 
history  of  this  double  production  of  oil  and  gas  in  this  country,  where 
by  far  the  greatest  experience  of  the  world  has  been  accumulated.  Every 
producer  of  petroleum  knows  that  a  field  begins  to  die  the  moment  it 
begins  to  live.  A  promising  sand  rock  is  often  entirely  drained  of  its 
contents,  which  may  amount  to  several  millions  barrels  of  oil  in  a  single 
year,  and  the  longest  life  of  the  best  American  field  has  never  yet  at- 
tained to  a  score  of  years. 

The  views  above  presented  and  discussed  are  not  only  crude  and  un- 
scientific, but  they  are  often  very  mischievous,  so  far  as  they  gain  accept- 
ance in  the  popular  mind.  They  are  responsible  for  much  of  the  reck- 
less waste  that  has  characterized  our  use  of  these  hydrocarbons  thus  far. 
It  is  this  promise  of  perennially  renewed  supplies,  in  fact,  that  gives 
them  the  currency  that  they  now  enjoy.  Some  phase  of  this  theory  is 
always  found  full-fledged  in  a  neighborhood  that  has  discovered  oil  or  gas 
within  this  year  or  the  last.  Two  years,  or  three  years  at  most,  of  suc- 
cessful development,  serve  to  convert  all  judicious  observers  from  the 
error  of  this  way  of  thinking ;  but  the  masses  often  persist  in  holding  to 
the  perpetuity  of  the  reservoirs  until  they  are  completely  exhausted,  and 
even  then  there  are  explanations  in  plenty  by  which  the  unwelcome  con- 
clusion can  be  avoided. 

Much  more  could  be  said  in  contravention  of  the  theory  which  has 
now  been  examined.  In  the  subsequent  discussion  of  explanations  of 
origin  that  have  a  better  scientific  basis  than  the  one  now  examined,  many 
things  will  be  brought  to  view  that  bear  also  upon  this  theory,  in  the  way 
of  answering  objections  which  it  raises  to  other  explanations.  In  particu- 
lar, the  true  understanding  of  the  cause  of  rock  pressure  in  gas  and  oil- 
wells,  which  is  innocently  stated  by  the  author  as  amounting  to  the 
extreme  figure  of  300  pounds  to  the  square  inch,  bears  with  fatal  force 
against  the  chemical  hypothesis.  The  300  pounds  here  named  as  extra- 
ordinary are  commonplace  or  even  low  figures  in  this  connection.  Pres- 
sures of  600,  700  and  800  pounds  to  the  square  inch  are  not  unusual.  The 
limit  of  present  experience  is  set  at  1,000  pounds. 

The  best  accessible  statement  in  its  most  expanded  and  authentic 
form  of  the  theory  t]|at  finds  the  origin  of  petroleum  and  gas  in  the  opera- 
tion of  chemical  force  on  inorganic  matter,  has  now  been  presented  and 
its  weakness  and  inconsistency  have  been  in  part  pointed  out.  When 


PETROLEUM    AND    NATURAL    GAS.  71 

confronted  with  the  geological  facts  which  it  essays  to  explain,  it  is  found 
entirely  inadequate  and  inadmissible.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  petroleum 
and  gas  have  not  been  originated  in  the  way  which  this  theory  suggests. 

2.     Geological  Theories. 

Under  the  present  heading,  the  leading  theories  that  are  based  on  the 
origin  of  petroleum  and  gas  from  organic  sources  will  be  briefly  considered. 
They  .are  termed  geological  theories  as  opposed  to  chemical  theories,  because 
they  have  been  originated  and  are  held  b*y  geologists,  or  at  least  by  those 
that  look  at  the  facts  from  the  geological  point  of  view.  In  this  list 
many  chemists  are  included,  and  as  before  observed,  chemical  force  is  by 
no  means  dispensed  with  in  the  processes  to  which  these  theories  make 
appeal.  In  this  country  no  geologist  of  standing  has  adopted  either  of 
the  theories  of  the  preceding  group,  so  far  as  known.  Without  excep- 
tion, those  who  have  studied  and  discussed  the  subject  have  found  them- 
selves obliged  to  adopt  in  some  form  the  organic  origin  of  the  substances 
under  consideration.  In  Europe  there  is  occasionally  a  geologist  of  note 
who  has  fallen  in  with  one  or  other  of  the  theories  of  origin  from  inor- 
ganic substances  above  given.  Professor  Abich,  for  example,  a  German 
geologist  of  some  distinction,  adopted  the  last  theory  viz.,  that  of  Dr. 
Mendeljeff,  and  undertook  to  apply  it  in  the  interest  of  German  capital- 
ists to  the  great  Baku  oil  field  in  which  the  latter  were  interested.  It 
is  not  a  matter  of  surprise  to  learn  that  all  the  forecasts  which  he  made 
for  the  field  on  this  basis  proved  erroneous.  In  no  single  case,  it  is  said, 
were  his  predictions  as  to  the  behavior  of  the  oil  territory  verified. 

Prof.  Hans  Hofer,  of  the  Royal  School  of  Mines,  Leoben,  Austria, 
published  in  1888  a  treatise  on  petroleum  and  the  substances  associated 
with  it,  in  which  he  made  a  thorough  and  judicious  review,  the  best  in 
fact  that  has  ever  been  made,  of  all  the  prominent  theories  that  have  been 
advanced  in  regard  to  the  origin  of  petroleum.  He  shows  that  by  far  the 
greater  number  of  the  geologists  who  have  interested  themselves  in  the 
question  have  reached  the  conclusion  that  it  must  have  been  derived  from 
organic  substances.  To  this  conclusion  he  himself  gives  hearty  support ; 
and  the  fact  that  he  has  acquainted  himself  by  personal  investigation  with 
the  great  oil-fields  of  the  United  States,  renders  his  judgment  all  the  more 
valuable.  Discussions  carried  on  by  those  who  are  ignorant  of  this,  the 
most  important  section  of  our  experience,  lack  authority  and  weight. 

But  while  there  is  practical  unanimity  of  opinion  among  geologists 

on  this  point,  viz.,  that  petroleum  has  deen  derived  from  organic  sources, 

their  agreement  ceases  here.     Organic  substances  are  in  the  first  place 

divided  into  two  great  classes — vegetable  and  animal.     To  which  class  is 

etroleum  to  be  referred  ?     The  larger  number  of  geologists,  especially  in 


72  GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO. 

America,  are  disposed  to  refer  it  to  a  vegetable  origin  ;  but  in  Europe  there 
is  apparently  a  growing  disposition  to  find  its  source  in  animal  remains. 
There  are  also  many  to  be  found  who  would  not  hesitate  to  accept  both 
sources  as  possible  and  probable. 

Again,  among  those  who  count  a  vegetable  origin  probable,  there  is 
considerable  room  for  difference  of  opinion.  One  refers  petroleum  to  algal 
vegetation,  or  sea-weeds ;  another  to  the  mosses  from  which  peat  is  derived, 
and  still  others  to  land  plants  ajid  to  coal.  So,  also,  various  tribes  of  the 
animal  world  are  counted  by  different  authors  the  main  source  of 
petroleum. 

Furthermore,  when  we  begin  to  theorize  on  the  mode  of  transforma- 
tion of  vegetable  or  animal  substances  into  oil,  still  greater  divergencies  of 
riew  are  brought  to  light.  Some  insist  that  the  transformation  is  accom- 
plished by  a  peculiar  process  of  chemical  decomposition,  while  others  refer 
the  entire  formation  of  petroleum  to  destructive  distillation.  There  are 
also  some  who  advocate  a  mode  of  origin  to  which  they  give  a  new  name, 
yiz.,  spontaneous  distillation,  but  this  term  has  not  been  precisely  defined, 
and  its  exact  meaning  can  not  therefore  be  determined.  In  the  language 
which  is  used  in  regard  to  it,  chemical  decomposition  and  destructive  dis- 
tillation seem  to  be  blended  in  an  illegitimate  way. 

The  differences  of  opinion  on  these  several  points  are  seen  to  be  such 
as  to  justify  the  statement  with  which  the  present  chapter  was  opened, 
viz.,  that  no  explanation  of  the  origin  of  petroleum  can  be  furnished  that 
will  command  any  thing  like  general  acceptance  among  those  who  are 
interested  in  the  study  and  discussion  of  these  questions.  A  few  of  these 
theories  that  have  secured  the  most  attention  will  be  briefly  stated  and 
discussed. 

Newberry's  Theory. — One  of  the  most  lucid  and  widely  accepted  the- 
ories as  to  the  origin  of  petroleum  and  gas  is  that  of  Dr.  J.  S.  Newberry, 
formerly  State  Geologist  of  Ohio,  and  now  Professor  of  Geology  in  Colum- 
bia College,  New  York.  For  the  first  statement  of  it,  we  must  go  back  to 
a  paper  published  in  the  State  Agricultural  Report  of  1859,  entitled  Rock 
Oils  of  Ohio.  The  theory  is  restated  and  emphasized  in  Volume  I,  Geology 
of  Ohio,  and  also  in  later  publications. 

Dr.  Newberry  refers  the  origin  of  the  oil  and  gas  of  the  great  Alle- 
gheny field  to  the  extensive  deposit  of  Devonian  and  Sub-carboniferous 
shales,  and  especially  black  shales  that  underlie  the  productive  districts  of 
Pennsylvania  and  New  York.  In  the  first  paper  he  speaks  as  follows  : 

"  The  precise  process  by  which  petroleum  is  evolved  from  the  carbonaceous 
matter  contained  in  the  rocks  which  furnish  it  is  not  yet  fully  known,  because  we  cannot 
in  ordinary  circumstances  inspect  it.  We  may  fairly  infer,  however,  that  it  is  a  distil- 
lation, though  generally  performed  at  a  low  temperature." 


PETROLEUM    AND    NATURAL    GAS.  73 

Again  he  says  (Geology  of  Ohio,  Vol.  I,  p.  192)  : 

"The  origin  of  the  two  hydrocarbons  (petroleum  and  gas)  is  the  same,  and  they  are 
evolved  simultaneously  by  the  spontaneous  distillation  of  carbonaceous  rocks." 

In  Vol.  I,  Geology  of  Ohio,  p.  158,  he  says : 

"  I  have  already  referred  to  the  Huron  shale  as  a  probable  source  of  the  greater  part 

of  the  petroleum  obtained  in  this  country The  considerations 

which  have  led  me  to  adopt  this  view  are  briefly  these  : 

"  First.  We  have  in  the  Huron  shale  a  vast  repository  of  solid  hydro-carbonaceous 
matter  which  may  be  made  to  yield  ten  to  twenty  gallons  of  oil  to  the  ton  by  artificial 
distillation.  Like  all  other  organic  matter  this  is  constantly  undergoing  spontaneous 
distillation,  excepl  where  hermetically  sealed  deep  under  rock  and  water.  This  results 
in  the  formation  of  oil  and  gas,  closely  resembling  those  which  we  make  artificially  from 
the  same  substance,  the  manufactured  differing  from  the  natural  products  only  because 
we  can  not  imitate  accurately  the  process  of  nature. 

"  Second.  A  line  of  oil  and  gas  springs  marks  the  outcrop  of  the  Huron  shale  from 
New  York  to  Tennessee.  The  rock  itself  is  frequently  found  saturated  with  petroleum, 
and  the  overlying  strata,  if  porous,  are  sure  to  be  more  or  less  impregnated  with  it. 

"Third.  The  wells  on  Oil  Creek  penetrate  the  strata  immediately  overlying  the 
Huron  shale,  and  the  oil  is  obtained  from  the  fissured  and  porous  sheets  of  sandstone  of 
the  Portage  and  Chemung  groups,  which  lie  just  above  the  Huron,  and  offer  convenient 
reservoirs  for  the  oil  it  furnishes." 

Particular  attention  is  called  to  the  first  of  the  paragraphs  above 
quoted.  In  it  an  adequate  source  for  the  petroleum  of  the  great  producing 
districts  is  clearly  pointed  out,  and  the  objection  urged  by  Dr.  Mendeljeff 
to  the  effect  that  no  source  could  be  found  for  the  great  accumulations  in 
the  rocks,  is  shown  to  be  entirely  without  foundation.  In  support  of  this 
general  view  of  origin,  it  is  to  be  noted  that  distillation  is  resorted  to  in 
the  large  way  at  the  present  time  to  manufacture  from  carbonaceous  shales 
just  such  a  series  of  products  as  oil  and  gas  would  supply.  There  is 
nothing  questionable  or  doubtful  in  the  process. 

The  obscure  point  in  Dr.  Newberry's  theory  is  his  use  of  the  term 
"  spontaneous  distillation,"  which  he  repeatedly  asserts,  is  carried  on  at 
"  low  temperatures."  There  are  several  ways  in  which  vegetable  and  ani- 
mal substances  can  be  resolved  into  compounds  of  a  simpler  order  than 
those  that  are  formed  in  the  living  world.  One  of  these  methods  is  known 
as  decay.  When  the  vital  force  is  withdrawn  from  the  organic  substance, 
chemical  affinity  asserts  itself  and  a  rearrangement  of  the  elements  com- 
posing the  bodies  is  effected.  The  oxygen  of  the  air  has  an  important 
part  in  this  process  when  the  decaying  body  is  exposed  to  it.  A  modifi- 
cation of  this  process  is  effected  when  the  presence  of  oxygen  is  excluded 
from  the  decomposing  body,  as,  for  example,  when  it  is  covered  with  water. 
The  results  of  decay  in  the  open  air  are  carbonic  acid,  water  and  ammonia; 
decomposition  under  water  results  in  the  formation  of  carbonic  acid  and 
light  carbureted  hydrogen.  Another  method  is  that  of  combustion.  When 


74  GEOLOGY    OF    OHTO. 

organic  substances  are  burned  in  the  open  air,  their  elements  are  forced 
rapidly  into  the  same  general  line  of  products  that  result  from  decay ;  the 
latter  is,  in  fact,  slow  combustion.  Still  another. method  of  producing  the 
'  same  line  of  change  is  known  as  distillation,  or  more  accurately  as  destruc- 
tive distillation.  It  is  effected  by  applying  heat  to  organic  substances  in 
enclosed  spaces  from  which  the  air  is  excluded.  It  can  be  defined  as  the 
decomposition  of  an  organic  substance  in  a  close  vessel,  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  obtain  liquid  products.  By  a  product  is  meant  a  body  not  originally 
present  in  the  substance  distilled.  If  the  body  is  merely  extracted  with- 
out change,  it  is  called  by  some  authors  an  ecluct.  Distillation  is  a  very 
ancient  process.  The  chemistry  of  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries 
consisted  of  little  beside  it.  All  sorts  of  bodies  were  subjected  to  it,  but 
the  chemists  of  that  time  lacked  the  ability  to  classify  the  products  ob- 
tained except  in  a  crude  and  general  way  that  possessed  but  very  little 
significance.  Destructive  distillation  is  at  the  present  time  a  process  of 
immense  practical  value.  Illuminating  gas,  for  example,  is  one  of  its 
main  products.  So  far  as  we  can  learn  by  observation,  the  temperature 
at  which  destructive  distillation  can  be  effected  artificially  is  never  less 
than  180°  F.  The  ordinary  forms  of  vegetable  matter  are  entirely  unal- 
tered at  150°  F.,  and  but  little  change  is  accomplished  below  300°  F, 
Most  of  the  transformations  are  accomplished  from  400°  F.  upwards.  The 
process  always  and  necessarily  leaves  a  charcoal  residue  or  coke. 

It  is  possible  that  like  changed  in  organic  matter  are  accomplished 
where  time  is  exchanged  for  temperature;  or,  in  other  words,  it  may  be 
that  distillation  is  effected,  as  Newberry  asserts,  at  low  temperatures  con- 
tinued through  long  periods,  but  there  are  no  facis  known  that  establish 
this  view.  Thus  far  we  have  nothing  but  the  bare  and  unsupported  sug- 
gestion, and  this  certainly  can  not  furnish  solid  grounds  of  belief.  It 
will  not  answer  to  say  that  the  presence  of  petroleum  in  the  rocks  proves 
this  view  correct,  because  there  are  other  ways  possible  of  accounting  for 
this  fact  Neither  is  the  suggestion  strengthened  in  any  way  by  frequent 
reiteration. 

If  it  could  be  proved  probable  and  actual,  it  would  simplify  the  ques- 
tion under  discussion  to  a  great  extent,  but  until  some  advance  is  made 
in  this  direction,  we  are  obliged  to  consider  destructive  distillation  as 
necessarily  involving  temperatures  of  at  least  200°  F.,  and  in  either  case 
a  carbonaceous  residue  must  also  be  found  as  a  result  of  distillation. 

It  militates  against  Dr.  Newberry's  theory  that  the  rocks  show  no- 
trace  of  even  the  lowest  degree  of  the  heat  necessary  to  effect  distillation. 
Chemical  geologists  have  shown  that  silica  is  rendered  freely  soluble  in 
rocks  at  a  temp>  rature  of  212°  F.,  especially  where  alkaline  carbonates 
are  present.  The  rocks  of  the  Ohio  shale  that  are  now  under  coneidera- 


PETROLEUM    AND    NATURAL    GAS.  75 

tion  contain  alkaline  chlorides,  and  these  would,  without  doubt,  take  part 
in  the  reactions  by  which  silica  would  be  set  free  at  the  temperature 
named.  But  siliceous  sheets  are  nowhere  found  in  the  deep  drilling  by 
which  oil  and  gas  are  reached  The  rock  cuttings  brought  up  even  from 
depths  of  four  thousand  and  five  thousand  feet  below  the  surface  show 
the  strata  to  be  entirely  unaltered.  This  fact  renders  it  certain  that 
temperatures  of  even  two  hundred  degrees  have  never  been  reached  even 
at  the  great  depths  named. 

Neither  has  there  been  in  any  case  pointed  out  the  carbonaceous  resi- 
due in  the  shales,  which  the  process  of  destructive  distillation  would 
render  strictly  necessary.  There  is  carbonaceous  matter  in  the  shales  in 
considerable  amount  as  has  been  already  shown,  but  it  exists  in  the  form 
of  hydrocarbons  and  not  as  coke. 

Dr.  Newberry  occasionally  speaks  of  the  process  which  he  evokes  as 
if  it  were  one  with  the  ordinary  chemical  decomposition  of  decay.  He 
says  in  a  passage  already  quoted,  "  like  all  other  organic  matter,  this  i& 
constantly  undergoing  spontaneous  distillation  except  where  hermetically 
sealed  deep  under  rock  and  water."  This  description  applies  to  decay 
rather  than  to  distillation  in  the  proper  sense  of  the  word. 

Dr.  Newberry  holds  that  the  vegetable  matter  of  the  shale  derived 
from  floating  marine  vegetation,  presumably  of  the  algal  type,  is  the 
proper  source  of  the  production  of  the  great  fields.  This  theory,  as  above 
stated,  is  one  of  the  most  lucid  and  attractive  of  all  that  have  been  pro- 
posed, and  while  exceptions  must  be  taken  to  some  portions  of  it,  it  is 
certain  that  it  contains  many  elements  of  great  value. 

Peckham'8  Theory. — In  the  United  States  Census  Reports  for  1880,  Prof- 
S.  F.  Peckham,  Special  Agent  for  the  collection  of  th^  statistics  of  petroleum, 
has  given  an  extended  and  very  valuable  review  f  the  various  theories 
which  have  been  proposed  as  to  the  origin  and  m  U  of  accumulation  of 
this  substance.  The  bibliographical  list  which  hp  has  compiled  of  the 
literature  of  the  subject  is  probably  the  best  that  has  ever  been  made  in  the 
English  language.  He  states  the  leading  theories  of  the  origin  of  bitumens 
anda  dopts  Newberry's  theory  in  the  main  with  hearty  approval,  counting 
destructive  distillation  as  the  process  involved  in  it.  He  recognizesr 
however,  the  two  elements  of  weakness  in  it  that  have  been  already 
pointed  out,  and  aims  to  supply  the  deficiency  by  showing  first,  how 
an  adequate  source  of  heat  can  be  supplied  and,  secondly,  by  explain- 
ing why  no  carbonaceous  residue  is  met  within  the  rocks  that  are  open  to- 
our  inspection. 

The  heat  necessary  to  the  destructive  distillation  of  organic  matter, 
he  considers  to  have  resulted  from  the  elevation  of  the  Appalachian 


J?  6  GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO. 

border  of  the  continent.  The  metamorphic  action  due  to  heat,  which  is 
so  well  seen  in  the  strata  that  compose  the  eastern  and  central  slopes  of 
the  Alleghenies,  he  says,  could  not  have  died  out  abruptly,  and  must 
have  extended  as  far  to  the  westward  as  the  oil  fields  lie.. 

But  the  heat  action  to  which  petroleum  is  due,  he  holds  must  have 
taken  place  at  immense  depths,  and  the  scene  of  the  transformation  must 
accordingly  be  sought  far  below  the  unaltered  rocks  in  which  petroleum 
is  now  found.  We  are  also  led  to  infer  that  if  we  could  descend  deep 
enough  into  the  strata,  we  should  find  the  carbonaceous  residue  required 
by  all  forms  of  the  distillation  theory. 

To  these  claims,  we  are  obliged  to  answer,  as  under  the  previous  head, 
that  the  rocks,  for  at  least  a  mile  in  depth,  show  no  signs  of  the  meta- 
morphic  action  required  by  the  theory ;  they  have  not  suffered  the  mineral 
transformation  that  would  have  been  inevitable  if  they  had  passed  through 
this  history.  In  his  anxiety  to  get  deep  enough  to  account  for  the  heat 
and  also  to  escape  the  necessity  of  showing  a  carbon  residue,  Professor 
Peckham  drops  far  below  the  available  sources  of  oil  and  gas  even  accord- 
ing to  his  own  views.  He  accepts  unreservedly  Newberry's  reference  of 
these  substances  to  the  great  shale  system,  but  he  is  obliged  to  go  to  great 
depths  below  it  in  order  to  find  heat  enough  to  work  the  necessary  trans- 
formation. He  says  of  the  Pennsylvania  oils,  "  they  are  undoubtedly 
distillates  and  of  vegetable  origin,"  but  the  last  stratum  that  we  know 
that  contains  vegetable  materials  on  the  large  scale  is  the  great  Ohio  shale 
— (Huron  shale  of  Newberry).  There  are  still  other  considerations  that 
oppose  this  view.  The  close-grained  shales  that  make  the  cover  of  the 
several  oil  and  gas  reservoirs  prevent  the  passage  of  petroleum  from  lower 
depths  to  higher  ones ;  otherwise,  they  would  not  themselves  be  reservoirs. 
And  again,  the  petroleum  of  different  horizons  differs  considerably  in 
character  and  composition.  Such  differences  would  not  be  explicable  if 
all  of  them  had  a  common  source. 

This  theory  is  thus  found  on  examination  to  show  the  same  weak- 
ness as  the  theory  first  examined,  and  in  fact  it  gives  no  advantage  what- 
ever over  it.  It  is  defective  on  the  geological  side,  since  it  fails  to  make 
account  of  the  established  facts  with  reference  to  geological  order  and 
certain  geological  conditions  of  petroleum  productions. 

Professor  Peckham's  theory  is  seen  to  differ  from  Newberry's  as  to 
the  date  at  which  petroleum  was  formed.  Newberry  considers  the  pro- 
cess a  constant  one;  Peckham  refers  it  to  the  date  of  the  Apalachian 
revolution,  or  shortly  subsequent  thereto. 

Hunt's  Theory. — The  two  theories  already  given  furnish  the  best 
presentation  of  the  general  view  which  refers  petroleum  and  gas  to  the 


PETROLEUM    AND    NATURAL    GAS,  77 

destructive  distillation  of  organic  matter  originally  buried  in  the  rocks  of 
the  earth's  crust.  The  process  is  considered  a  secondary  transformation 
of  this  organic  matter.  It  was  buried  as  organic  matter;  it  is  raised 
again  in  a  new  form,  and  the  change  is  referred  to  the  process  already 
named  and  denned,  viz.,  destructive  distillation. 

There  is,  however,  one  other  view  of  great  promise  and  importance  in 
this  connection  which  refers  oil  and  gas  to  the  primary  and  not  to  the 
secondary  decomposition  of  organic  matter.  It  holds  that  the  remains  of 
living  bodies,  animal  and  vegetable,  pass,  under  appropriate  circum- 
stances, directly  into  petroleum.  In  other  words,  the  bituminous  decom- 
position must  be  added  to  the  ordinary  decay  of  organic  bodies.  The 
facts  to  which  this  theory  appeals  are  comparatively  few,  and,  as  at  pres- 
ent stated,  they  lack  the  fall  authority  necessary  to  establish  so  novel  a 
doctrine,  but  some  of  them  seem  to  carry  great  weight.  If  careful 
investigation  shall  hereafter  show  them  to  be  thoroughly  founded,  the 
problem  of  petroleum  production  can  be  considered  solved.  The  most 
elaborate  and  effective  exposition  of  this  theory  is  that  of  Dr.  T.  Sterry 
Hunt.  He  urges,  with  great  force  and  vigor,  the  view  that  petroleum 
mainly  originates  in  and  is  derived  from  limestones.  When  found  in 
limestones  he  counts  the  oil  indigenous,  but  when  found  elsewhere,  as  in 
sandstones  and  conglomerates,  he  counts  it  adventitious,  and  he  then 
refers  it  to  underlying  limestones.  In  regard  to  this  latter  point,  how- 
ever, he  makes  concessions,  as  will  be  seen  on  a  later  page. 

The  following  extracts  from  various  articles  that  he  has  published 
contain  a  clear  statement  of  his  views  upon  this  subject. 

In  speaking  of  the  oil  fields  of  Canada,  he  says  : 

"The  facts  observed  in  this  locality  appear  to  show  that  the  petroleum,  or  the  sub- 
stance which  has  given  rise  to  it,  was  deposited  in  the  bed  in  which  it  is  now  found  at 
the  formation  of  the  rock.  We  may  suppose  in  these  oil-bearing  beds  an  accumulation 
of  organic  matters,  whose  decomposition  in  the  midst  of  a  marine  calcareous  deposit, 
has  resulted  in  their  complete  transformation  into  petroleum,  which  has  found  a  lodg- 
ment in  the  cavities  of  the  shells  and  corals  immediately  near.  Its  absence  from  the 
unfilled  cells  of  corals  in  the  adjacent  and  interstratified  beds,  forbids  the  idea  of  the 
introduction  of  the  oil  into  these  strata  either  by  distillation  or  by  infiltration.  The 
same  observations  apply  to  the  Trenton  limestone,  and  if  it  shall  be  hereafter  shown 
that  the  source  of  petroleum  (as  distinguished  from  asphalt)  in  other  regions  is  to  be 
found  in  marine  fossiliferous  limestones,  a  step  will  have  been  made  toward  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  chemical  conditions  necessary  to  its  formation."1 

Again,  he  says : 

"  In  opposition  to  the  generally  received  view,  which  supposes  the  oil  to  originate 
from  a  slow  destructive  distillation  of  the  black  pyroschists,  belonging  to  the  middle 
and  upper  Devonian,  I  have  maintained  that  it  exists,  ready  formed,  in  the  limestones 
below."2 

This  statement  seems  to  recognize  the  possibility  of  the  transfer  of 
petroleum  from  its  sources  to  reservoirs  in  associated  strata. 


78  GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO. 

Again,  after  describing  the  occurrence  of  petroleum  in  certain  fossils 
and  certain  layers  of  the  Corniferous  limestone,  he  says  :3 

"  The  facts  observed  in  this  locality  appear  to  show  that  the  petroleum,  or  the  sub- 
stance that  has  given  rise  to  it,  was  deposited  in  the  bed  in  which  it  is  now  found  at  the 
formation  of  the  rock." 

Finally,  in  referring  to  bitumen-bearing  dolomite  in  the  Niagara 
series  near  Chicago,  he  says  : 

"  With  such  sources  ready  formed  in  the  earth's  crust,  it  seems  to  me,  to  say  the 
least,  unphilosophical  to  search  elsewhere  for  the  origin  of  petroleum,  and  to  suppose  it 
to  be  derived  by  some  unexplained  process  from  rocks  which  are  destitute  of  the 
substance."  (Essays,  p.  174.) 

In  this  passage,  also,  a  possible  transfer  of  petroleum  seems  to  be 
recognized. 

These  statements  leave  nothing  to  be  desired  as  to  clearness  and 
explicitness.  The  author's  view  could  not  well  be  put  into  more  concise 
terms  than  he  has  used.  It  must  be  added,  however,  that  he  has  some- 
times described  the  oil  of  Pennsylvania  and  Ohio  as  indigenous  to  the 
Devonian  and  Carboniferous  sandstones  which  contain  it.  (Essays,  p. 
171.) 

There  is  something  to  be  said  in  favor  of  this  theory,  that  petroleum 
originates  in  the  primary  decomposition  of  organic  substances,  but  the 
author's  restriction  of  oil  production  to  limestones  must,  of  course,  be  dis- 
carded, and  just  why  the  process  should  be  made  to  terminate  with  the 
formation  of  the  rock  is  not  apparent.  We  know  that  vegetable  substan- 
ces may  remain  unchanged  when  buried  in  the  earth  for  long  periods,  and 
so  long  as  they  are  present  in  unchanged  state,  they  would  seem  to  be 
available  for  the  process  here  appealed  to. 

Hunt  denies  that  the  so'called  bituminous  shales,  "  except  in  rare 
instances,  contain  any  petroleum  or  other  form  of  bitumen."  (Essays, 
169.) 

This  statement  is  wide  of  the  mark  so  far  as  the  Ohio  shale  is  con- 
cerned. Either  gas  or  oil,  or  both,  are  unmistakably  present  throughout 
our  great  shale  series,  and  especially  in  the  black  bands  that  traverse  it. 
Whether  taken  from  the  natural  outcrops  or  from  the  deepest  drillings, 
every  fresh  sample  of  the  black  shale  attests  by  the  characteristic  odor  the 
presence  of  these  substances.  In  drilling  through  the  shale  along  the 
shore  of  Lake  Erie,  in  particular,  the  gas  is  generally  found  in  some  harder 
portion  of  the  light-colored  bands  that  compose  so  large  a  portion  of  the 
series,  each  harder  cap  or  "  shell "  giving  a  new  though  short-lived  supply, 
but  the  real  source  of  the  gas  becomes  apparent  if  the  drill  descends  a  little 


PETROLEUM    AND    NATURAL    GAS.  79 

lower  than  the  gas-producing  "  shell,"  when  a  darker  band  is  almost  inva- 
riably reported.  Quantitative  examinations  show  that  the  shale  often 
carries  at  least  one-fifth  of  one  per  cent,  of  petroleum,  existing  in  it  as 
petroleum  and  not  merely  there  potentially. 

Newberry  states  the  facts  bearing  upon  this  supply  in  the  passage 
already  quoted,  and  Shaler  sets  the  same  line  of  facts  in  strong  light  in 
his  discussion  of  the  Ohio  shale  in  Kentucky.  (Vol.  Ill,  page  109,  Geol- 
ogy of  Kentucky.) 

But  the  limestone  series  of  Ohio  is  in  very  much  the  same  case  as  the 
shale,  so  far  as  oil  and  gas  are  concerned.  These  substances  are  present 
in  nearly  all  the  limestone  formations  of  the  State,  and  apparently  indig- 
enous to  them.  % 

The  Corniferous  limestone,  the  first  to  be  reached  below  the  Ohio  shale, 
in  some  of  its  fields  and  in  certain  courses,  contains  representatives  of  this 
class  of  substances.  The  Marblehead  limestone,  of  Ottawa  county,  gives 
out  a  bituminous  odor  when  struck  with  a  hammer,  and  other  portions 
of  this  limestone  stratum  are  even  more  bituminous  than  the  Marblehead 
stone. 

The  Waterlime  or  Lower  Helderberg  formation  that  comes  next 
below,  is  decidedly  bituminous.  It  contains  grains  of  asphalt  in  cavities 
in  the  rock  and  carbonaceous  films  that  have  had  the  same  origin,  distrib- 
uted through  its  substance.  When  struck  with  a  hammer,  it  gives  out 
the  fetid  odor  of  "  limestone  oil."  Bowlders  of  it  in  the  drift  can  be  dis- 
tinguished by  this  means  from  all  associated  limestones,  except  a  part  of 
the  Corniferous.  In  Auglaize  county,  this  stone  becomes  an  asphaltic 
limestone,  the  bituminous  element  rising  to  a  notable  percentage.  In 
other  parts  of  the  State,  also,  the  amount  of  asphalt  is  so  great  that  it 
is  counted  a  decided  advantage  in  the  calcination  of  the  stone  for  quick- 
lime. 

The  Niagara  limestone,  as  a  whole,  is  less  bituminous  than  the  Helder- 
berg, but  there  are  parts  of  it,  as  in  portions  of  Highland  county,  that 
contains  a  considerable  amount  of  these  products,  mostly  in  the  shape  of 
asphaltic  films  and  grains.  Fossil  corals  are  often  partially  occupied  by 
this  asphalt,  and  petroleum  is  sometimes  found  in  small  amounts. 

The  Clinton  limestone  is  decidedly  petroliferous  in  almost  all  of  its 
outcrops.  It  yields  oil  in  small  amount  at  many  points  where  quarries 
are  opened  in  it,  and  springs  that  issue  from  it  carry  out  small  quantities 
of  oil.  These  facts  led,  in  the  oil  excitement  of  1860,  to  the  drilling  of 
several  deep  wells  along  its  line  of  outcrop.  By  the  time  the  drill  was 
buried  in  the  rock,  this  source  of  oil  was  passed,  and  the  remainder  of  the 
descent  was  relieved  by  but  little  encouragement. 


8O  GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO. 

Small  deposits  of  asphalt  have  been  found  under  convex  surfaces  of 
the  Dayton  limestone,  just  above  the  Clinton  stratum,  the  asphalt  being 
obviously  derived  from  an  inspissation  of  the  oil  of  the  latter  formation. 

The  limestones  of  the  Hudson  River  (Cincinnati)  group  always  con- 
tain bituminous  matter  in  their  outcrops,  but  when  penetrated  by  the 
drill,  they  have  seldom  yielded  at  any  point  large  supplies  of  oil  or  gas. 
Short-lived  flows,  especially  of  gas,  have  been  occasionally  found  in  this 
series,  both  in  northern  and  central  Ohio. 

The  Trenton  limestone  has  been  proved  by  the  drill  to  be  a  prolific 
source  of  oil  and  gas  in  a  few  localities,  but  aside  from  this  great  produc- 
tion, it  almost  everywhere  carries  diffused  petroleum  in  appreciable  amount. 

The  limestones  and  shales  of  our  geological  series  are  thus  seen  to 
agree  in  these  respects.  Both  of  them  carry  petroleum  through  all  of  their 
substance,  and  the  product  of  each  class  has  its  own  characteristics.  In 
other  words,  these  supplies  appear  to  be  indigenous  to  both  groups. 

Hunt's  theory  as  to  the  petroleum  in  the  limestones  is  that  it  was 
formed  in  them  at  the  time  the  beds  themselves  were  formed  "  by  a  pe- 
culiar transformation  of  vegetable  matters  or  in  some  cases  of  animal  tissues 
analogous  to  them  in  composition."  But  why  shall  not  this  view  of  the 
origin  of  petroleum  be  extended  for  what  it  is  worth  to  other  rocks  that 
also  contain  this  substance  ?  If  there  is  good  reason  for  believing  in  the 
contemporaneous  origin  of  oil  and  limestones,  there  would  seem  to  be  a§ 
good  reason  for  holding  to  a  like  contemporaneity  of  petroleum  and  shale. 

In  referring  the  origin  of  petroleum  to  the  primary  and  not  the  second- 
ary decomposition  of  organic  matter,  the  process  is  made  to  be  one  that 
ought  to  be  found  in  present  operation  in  the  world.  Is  this  true  ?  Can 
it  be  shown  that  the  formation  of  petroleum  is  now  going  on  in  nature  ? 
The  answers  to  these  questions  are  not  as  positive  and  definite  as  we  should 
desire ;  nevertheless,  there  are  some  facts  that  seem  to  point  to  this  conclu- 
sion. It  is  very  desirable  that  more  observations  should  be  made. 

One  of  the  most  important  papers  on  the  subject  is  Mr.  G.  P.  Wall's 
report  on  the  Trinidad  asphalt.  A  remarkable  passage  in  it  bears  directly 
on  the  question  before  us.  It  is  as  follows,  twro  sentences  being  italicized : 

"  When  in  situ,  it  (the  asphalt)  is  confined  to  particular  strata  which  were]originally 
shales  containing  a  certain  proportion  of  vegetable  debris.  The  organic  matter  has  under- 
gone a  special  mineralization,  producing  bituminous  in  place  of  ordinary  anthraciferous  substances. 
This  operation  is  not  attributable  to  heat,  nor  to  the  nature  of  distillation,  but  is  due  to  chemical 
reaction  at  the  ordinary  temperature  and  under  the  normal  conditions  of  the  climate.  The  proofs 
that  this  is  the  true  mode  of  the  generation  of  the  asphalt  repose  not  only  on  the  partial 
manner  in  which  it  is  distributed  in  the  strata,  but  also  on  numerous  specimens  of  the 
vegetable  matter  in  process  of  transformation  and  with  the  organic  structure  more  or  less 
obliterated.  After  the  removal  by  solution  of  the  bituminous  material  under  the  micro- 
scope, a  remarkable  alteration  and  corrosion  of  the  vegetable  cells  becomes  apparent, 
which  is  not  presented  in  any  other  form  of  the  mineralization  of  wood. 


PETROLEUM   AND   NATURAL   GAS.  8 1 

Sometimes  the  emission  is  in  the  form  of  a  dense,  oily  liquid  from  which  the  volatile 
elements  gradually  evaporate,  leaving  a  solid  residue."  ( Quart." Journ.  Geol.  Soc.,  XVI, 
467.) 

Wall's  testimony  is  confirmed  by  other  authorities.  (See  Hunt's 
Essays,  177.) 

Petroleum,  rapidly  hardening  into  asphalt,  is  also  recorded  as|occur- 
ring  in  some  of  the  small  tributaries  of  the  Coaxocoalcas  River  in  Central 
America.  The  petroleum  seems  to  arise  from  the  decomposition  of  vege- 
table remains  with  which  certain  beds  of  shale  are  stored. 

If  Wall's  statements  are  to  be  trusted — and  theyE|bear  the  marks  of 
intelligent  and  discriminating  observation — the  facts]are^as",follows : 

Beds  of  shale,  formed  in  comparatively  recent  times  beneath  the  sea, 
l»ut  now  raised  above  its  level,  containing  in  abundance  vegetable  remains 
brought  down  by  the  Orinoco  River,  near  the  mouth- of  which  Trinidad  is  sit- 
uated, are  yielding  petroleum  in  large  amount,  by  a  direct  decomposition 
•f  vegetable  tissues  and  the  petroleum  rapidly  passes  into  asphalt,  inasmuch 
as  it  is  exposed  directly  to  the  atmosphere. 

At  how  great  a  depth  in  the  rocks  these  changes  are  going  on  we  have 
no  observations  to  show,  but  no  reason  is  apparent  why  these  phenomena 
should  be  superficial.  In  subsiding  areas,  and  almost  all  river  deltas  are 
§uch,  the  beds  containing  vegetable  remains  may  be  buried  to  a  consider- 
able depth  before  the  decomposition  can  be  fully  effected,  especially  if  the 
buried  substances  consist  of  the  more  durable  vegetable  products.  In  such 
a  case  we  might  expect  the  resulting  petroleum  to  remain  stored  in  the 
shale  where  it  originated. 

Why  the  phenomena  of  oil-production  have  been  generally  reported 
from  shales,  and  not  from  sandstones,  has  not  been  explained.  The  differ- 
ence between  the  two  formations  in  this  respect  may  be,  in  part,  due  to  the 
fact  that  the  shale  seals  up  the  vegetable  matter  more  perfectly  than  the 
sandstone.  In  the  latter  ordinary  decomposition  would  seem  to  have  a 
better  chance  to  go  on. 

From  the  fact  that  all  of  the  chief  bituminous  accumulations  of  recent 
age  belong  to  the  torrid  zone,  it  seems  necessary  to  conclude  that  a  trop- 
ical climate,  or  a  climate  of  at  least  80°  F.  average  temperature,  is  most 
favorable  to  a  large  production  of  this  class  of  bodies.  The  main  asphalt 
bodies  of  commerce  are  found  about  the  southern  and  western  shores  of  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico. 

The  asphalt  of  Trinidad  which  seems  to  be  in  constant  process  of  for- 
mation is  derived  from  shales  that  belong  to  the  later  Tertiaries,  and 
though  derived  from  the  most  recent  of  all  rocks  that  precede  the  present 
geological  age,  must  still  be  separated  from  our  time  by  a  considerable 
6          a. 


82  GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO. 

interval.  If  then  the  formation  of  petroleum  is  made  contemporaneous 
with  the  rock  that  contains  it,  it  must  be  a  geological  contemporaneity 
that  is  meant,  in  which  a  thousand  years  will  be  counted  as  a  single  day. 
But  according  to  this  theory,  what  is  there  to  hinder  the  process  of  petro- 
leum formation  from  going  forward  as  long  as  vegetable  matter  remains 
undecomposed  in  the  rocks.  Why  should  it  be  restricted  to  the  particular 
time  in  which  the  materials  of  the  strata  are  being  deposited  ? 

It  would  seem,  however,  that  in  the  vast  periods  that  have  elapsed 
since  the  Paleozoic  era,  there  would  have  been  time  enough  and  to  spare 
for  all  of  these  changes  to  be  accomplished,  and  that  the  process  would 
be  necessarily  arrested,  either  for  want  of  material  or  for  lack  of  proper 
conditions. 

The  essential  point  in  Hunt's  theory  of  the  origin  of  petroleum  is,  not 
that  it  was  produced  contemporaneously  with  the  rock,  nor  that  it  is 
especially  a  product  of  limestones,  but  that  it  results  from  the  primary 
decomposition  of  organic  substances.  Discarding  these  incidental  ele- 
ments of  the  theory,  and  applying  its  central  postulate  to  the  explanation 
of  the  origin  of  the  petroleum  of  eastern  Ohio  and  Pennsylvania,  we  can 
see  what  some  of  the  steps  in  the  history  must  have  been. 

The  shales  which  constitute  its  chief  source  were  accumulated  in  a 
tropical  sea.  The  Devonian  limestone  which  immediately  preceded  them 
in  time  bears  witness  to  most  genial  conditions  of  climate.  Its  massive 
corals  required  at  least  as  high  an  annual  temperature  as  is  found  in  any 
part  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  to-day. 

The  sedimentary  deposits  that  were  laid  down  on  the  floor  of  this 
Devonian  sea  consisted  of  clay  and  sand  with  occasional  gravel  bars,  the 
sources  of  which  must  be  sought  in  the  rising  Atlantic  border  or  in  the 
Canadian  highlands,  as  is  proved  by  all  the  deposits  thickening  and  grow- 
ing coarser  in  those  directions.  To  the  western  limit  of  this  sea,  along 
the  shores  of  the  emerging  Cincinnati  axis,  only  fine  clay  was  borne,  and 
this  fine  and  homogeneous  material  accumulated  very  slowly,  one  foot 
requiring  as  much  time  as  ten  or  twelve  feet  of  the  coarser  and  more 
varied  series  to  the  eastward. 

In  these  seas,  as  we  know,  there  was  a  vast  development  of  marine 
vegetation.  Some  plants  of  rhizocarpean  affinities  were  especially  abund- 
ant and  their  resinous  spores  and  spore  cases,  which  constituted  by  far 
the  most  durable  portions  of  the  plants,  were  set  free  in  enormous  quanti- 
ties. Even  now,  in  some  parts  of  the  series,  these  spores  constitute  a 
notable  percentage  of  the  shale.  In  structure  and  composition,  they  are 
but  little  changed  from  their  original  condition.  Other  portions  of  this 
and  like  vegetation  may  have  been  carried  to  the  sea-floor  in  a  macerated 
condition  and  have  there  passed  through  the  coaly  transformation,  result- 


PETROLEUM    AND    NATURAL    GAS.  83 

ing  in  the  structureless,  carbonaceous  matter  that  constantly  characterizes 
the  black  shales.  This  carbonaceous  substance  can  still  be  made  to  yield 
the  members  of  the  bitumen  series  through  the  agency  of  destructive  dis- 
tillation, and,  doubtless,  so  also  can  the  spores  that  remain  unaltered  in 
the  shales,  both  leaving  a  carbon  residue  thereafter. 

The  shales  that  wefe  slowly  accumulating  on  the  floor  of  this  tropical 
gulf,  thus  charged  with  vegetable  remains,  must  have  behaved  as  similar 
shales  do  around  the  border  of  the  present  gulf.  The  vegetable  matter 
was  turned  into  petroleum  as  it  is  in  Trinidad  and  the  West  Indies  now. 
The  petroleum  would  have  been  absorbed  by  the  particles  of  clay  in  con- 
tact with  which  it  was  originated,  or  if  liberated  in  the  water  it  would 
there  have  been  laid  hold  of  by  like  floating  particles  of  clay,  to  be  carried 
with  them  in  due  time  to  the  sea  floor,  and  the  work  would  have  gone  on 
•until  the  material  was  exhausted  or  the  requisite  conditions  were  lost. 

The  resulting  stratum  of  bituminous  shale  would  have  been  much 
more  highly  charged  with  petroleum  than  any  portion  of  these  shales  is 
at  the  present  time.  Over  it  at  last  a  bed  of  sandstone  is  deposited  which 
in  turn  is  roofed  in  by  another  bed  of  fine-grained  shale.  The  pores  of 
the  sandstone  are  occupied  by  sea-water,  but  a  slow  system  of  exchanges 
would  be  established  between  the  rocks  by  which  at  last  the  petroleum 
would  be  gathered  into  its  final  reservoir.  The  presence  of  petroleum  in 
considerable  amount  in  a  shale  might  give  it  a  measure  of  permeability. 

Such  would  appear  to  be  some  of  the  steps  in  the  production  of 
petroleum,  if  Hunt's  view  of  its  origin  by  the  primary  decomposition  of 
organic  tissue  is  adopted.  The  result  would  correspond  fairly  well  with 
those  of  the  "spontaneous  distillation"  theory  already  discussed.  Both 
would  find  petroleum  distributed  through  the  substance  of  the  shales,  and 
both  would  expect  its  constant  escape  from  outcrops  of  shale  or  sand- 
stone. Continuous  origination  is  by  no  means  a  necessary  conclusion 
from  continuous  outflow. 

The  advantage  that  the  present  theory  has  over  others  is  that  it  seems 
to  find  more  support  in  the  processes  of  nature  at  the  present  time.  We 
find  the  bitumen  series  in  actual  process  of  formation  in  many  parts  of 
the  world  to-day,  and  as  some  good  observers  hold,  resulting  from  the 
primary  decomposition  of  organic  matter  under  normal  conditions.  On 
the  other  hand,  we  do  not  find  this  series  in  any  cases  which  are  open  to 
observation  and  subject  to  measurement,  resulting  from  the  secondary 
decomposition  of  carbonaceous  matter  contained  in  the  rocks,  unless  the 
comparatively  high  temperatures  of  destructive  distillation  are  reached. 

The  several  views  of  the  origin  of  petroleum  that  seem  best  to  deserve 
attention  have  now  been  stated  as  fairly  as  possible.  Some  liberty  has 
been  taken  with  the  last  in  the  way  of  removing  limitations,  but  no  new 


84  GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO. 

theory  has  been  broached,  and  no  real  contribution  to  our  knowledge'of 
these  very  interesting  questions  is  claimed.  In  subjects  which  tempt 
speculation  as  much  as  those  which  are  now  under  discussion,  it  is  well 
to  know  the  opinions  that  are  most  entitled  to  respect,  even  where 
grounds  of  positive  knowledge  are  wanting.  How  little  real  knowledge 
we  have  of  this  subject  has  been  made  to  appear*in  this  brief  review,  and 
it  is  safe  to  conclude  that  until  the  boundaries  of  our  knowledge  are  con- 
siderably extended,  every  theory  in  regard  to  the  origin  of  petroleum 
should  be  held  as  provisional  only. 

The  theoretical  views  that  we  hold  as  to  the  origin  of  petroleum'will 
influence  our  judgment  also  as  to  the  duration  of  its  supplies.  The 
question  is  often  asked,  whether  there  is  any  provision  in  nature  by 
which  the  supplies  that  are  now  drawn  upon  or  exhausted,  can  be  re- 
newed. It  is  to  be  observed  that  of  the  several  theories  passed  in  review, 
only  the  discarded  chemical  hypotheses  hold  out  any  promise  of  a  peren- 
nial supply.  Of  the  three  views  from  which  most  will  feel  obliged  to 
make  their  choice,  two  answer  the  questions  raised  above  emphatically  in 
the  negative,  and  the  remaining  theory  gives  in  reality  no^  more  en- 
couragement. Newberry's  theory  makes  the  process  of  oil  formation  a 
continuous  one,  it  is  true,  but  it  extends  it  through  such  vast  cycles  of 
time  that  1,000  years  or  10,000  years  would  not  constitute'an  important 
factor.  In  other  words,  the  reservoirs  that  we  are  now  piercing  with  the 
drill,  and  that  are  yielding  such  vast  and  valuable  stores  of  light  and 
power,  would  in  all  probability  have  yielded  about  the  same  supply 
1,000  or  10,000  years  ago. 

Practically  the  stock  is  now  complete,  as  much  so  as  the  contents  of 
coal  mines  and  mineral  veins.  As  a  result  of  our  interference  jwith 
natural  conditions,  small  local  movements  of  oil  or  gas^mayfgo^on  in  the 
rocks,  but  these  would  be  but  insignificant  exceptions  to  a  general  rule 
that  the  reservoirs  hold  all  the  oil  and  gas  that  they  will  ever  hold,  and 
that  when  once  exhausted  they  will  never  be  replenished. 

Gas  and  oil  have  been  considered  together  in  all  the  preceding  dis- 
cussions, as  if  the  history  of  one  would  cover  the  history  of  the  other 
also.  There  are,  however,  speculations  which  dissociate  them  in  origin. 
By  some,  gas  is  counted  the  first  and  original  product,  and  it  is  supposed 
to  be  converted  into  petroleum  in  the  sandstone  reservoirs  by  some  un- 
known process  of  condensation. 

This  question,  like  those  that  have  preceded  it,  does  not  admit  of  a 
final  and  definite  answer  at  the  present  time,  but  the  chemical  probabili- 
ties do  not  seem  to  favor  this  view.  Petroleum  is  more  composite  and 
unstable  than  gas,  and  in  these  respects  it  seems  to  stand  at  less  remove 
rom  the  organic  world  than  the  latter.  A  large  percentage  of  natural 


PETROLEUM    AND    NATURAL    GAS.  85 

gas  is  light  carbureted  hydrogen,  one  of  the  simplest  and  most  stable  pro- 
ducts of  decomposition.  Petroleum  readily  gives  rise  to  marsh  gas  when 
subjected  to  destructive  agencies,  but  we  have  no  known  experience  in 
which  the  higher  compound  results  from  synthesis  of  the  lower.  It 
seems,  therefore,  eafe  to  consider  petroleum  first  in  the  order  of  nature. 

While,  therefore,  we  can  confidently  assert  that  petroleum  is  derived 
from  organic  matter,  we  are  obliged  to  confess  that  we  do  not  know  the 
exact  steps  of  the  transformation.  There  is,  however,  one  mode  of 
derivation  that  seems  highly  probable. 

The  discussion  of  this  class  of  theories  can  be  concluded  with  the 
following  summary : 

1.  Most  geologists  hold  that  petroleum  is  derived  from  organic  sub- 
stances that  were  incorporated   with  the  strata  when  the  latter  were 
formed.    There  is  substantial  harmony  among  the  entire  class  of  geolo- 
gists as  to  this  point. 

2.  The  majority  incline  to  the  opinion  that  vegetable  substances 
have  supplied  the  chief  sources,  but  some  count  animal  remains  as  also 
an   important  source.     There  are  a  few  authorities  upon  the  subject, 
chiefly  foreign,  who  consider  animal  remains  the  chief,  or,  perhaps,  the 
sole  source  of  petroleum. 

3.  Many  hold  that  it  is  the  result  of  destructive  distillation  of  the 
organic  matter  of  the  rocks.     They  rely  upon  such  facts  as  have  been 
already  adduced,  that  certain  shales,  for  example,  contain  a  considerable 
percentage  of  hydrocarbonaceous  material  that  is  easily  transformed  by 
heat  into  the  several  products  of  the  bituminous  theory. 

4.  In  accounting  for  the  origin  of  oil  and  gas  by  destructive  distilla- 
tion of  the  shale-;  the  advocates  of  the  theory  seem  bound  to  furnish  an 
adequate  source  of  the  heat  required,  and  also  to  show  what  has  become 
of  the  carbon  residue  that  is  inseparably  connected  with  the  process  of 
destructive  distillation.    Real  difficulties  beset  this  theory  in  these  re- 
gards.   The  view  that  destructive  distillation  is  accomplished  at  ordinary 
temperatures  would  relieve  the  first  difficulty,  if  a  such  process  could  be 
substantiated,  but  at  present  it  only  stands  as  an  entirely  unsupported 
suggestion. 

5.  According  to  one  phase  of  this  theory,  petroleum  is  constantly 
forming  in  the  rocks ;  though,  of  course,  as  the  world  is  old,  the  great 
stocks  were  formed  thousands  and  millions  of  years  ago.     According  to  a 
second  phase  of  the  theory,  the  oil  of  the  Allegheny  field  was  formed  at 
the  time  when  the  Appalachian  mountains  were  elevated. 

6.  A  small  number  of  geologists  hold  the  view  that  petroleum 
results  from  the  primary  decomposition  of  organic  matter ;  that  the  produc- 


86  GEOLOGY   OF    OHIO. 

tion  is  not  a  lost  art  of  nature,  but  is  in  actual,  though  perhaps  feeble 
operation  at  the  present  time,  its  chief  seats  being  in  tropical  or  sub- 
tropical regions.  According  to  this  view,  the  disseminated  petroleum 
that  the  rocks  contain  was  formed  when  the  rocks  themselves  were  formed. 
Organic  matter  which  is  notoriously  unstable  reaches  in  the  bituminous 
series  its  stage  of  rest,  and  we  may,  therefore,  truly  speak  of  Silurian  oil, 
Devonian  oil,  Tertiary  oil  and  the  like,  the  several  stocks  really  having 
the  age  of  the  beds  that  hold  them.  The  process  of  oil  formation,  accord- 
ing to  this  theory,  ceased  long  ago  in  the  older  rocks. 

7.  The  facts  upon  which  the  last  theory  must  rest  are  not  well 
enough  substantiated  to  allow  as  to  build  upon  them  with  full  confidence, 
but  we  are  justified  in  looking  upon  it  with  great  interest  us  it  furnishes  on 
the  whole  the  best  explanation  of  the  facts  for  which  we  are  obliged  to 
account. 

6.    MODES  OF  ACCUMULATION. 

* 

In  the  preceding  pages,  petroleum  has  been  shown  to  be  widely  dis- 
tributed in  the  rocks  of  Ohio.  The  limestones  and  shales  of  the  series, 
in  particular,  every-where  contain  it.  Hunt  has  made  a  calculation, 
showing  the  amount  of  petroleum  which  the  oil-bearing  dolomite  of 
Chicago  holds  to  the  square  mile  for  every  foot  in  thickness  of  the 
stratum.  If  we  apply  a  like  calculation  to  the  rocks  of  the  Ohio  scale, 
we  shall  find  the  total  amount  of  oil  enormously  large.  We  may  take, 
for  example,  the  Waterlime  stratum,  which  is  notably  and  almost  univer- 
sally petroliferous.  Estimating  its  petroleum  content  at  one-tenth  of  one 
per  cent.,  and  the  thickness  of  the  stratum  at  500  feet,  both  of  which 
figures  are  probably  within  the  limits,  we  find  the  petroleum  contained  in 
it  to  be  more  than  2,500,000  barrels  to  the  square  mile.  The  total  pro- 
duction of  the  great  oil  field  of  Pennsylvania  and  New  York,  to  January, 
1885,  is  261,000,000  barrels.  It  would  require  only  three  ordinary  town- 
ships, or  a  little  more  than  100  square  miles,  to  duplicate  this  enormous 
stock  from  the  Waterlime  alone.  But  if  the  rate  of  one  tenth  of  1  per 
cent,  should  be  maintained  through  a  descent  of  1,500  feet  at  any  point 
in  the  State,  each  square  mile  would,  in  that  case,  yield  7,500,000  barrels, 
or  nearly  one-thirtieth  of  the  total  product  of  the  entire  oil  field.  These 
figures  pass  at  once  beyond  clear  comprehension,  but  they  serve  to  give 
us  some  idea  of  the  vast  stock  of  petroleum  contained  in  the  earth's  crust. 
If  petroleum  is  generally  distributed  through  a  considerable  series  of  rocks 
in  any  appreciable  percentage,  it  is  easy  to  see  that  the  aggregate  amount 
must  be  immense.  Even  y^nny  of  1  per  cent,  would  yield  75,000  barrels 
to  the  square  mile  in  a  series  of  rocks  1,500  feet  deep,  but  this  amount  is 


PETROLEUM    AND    NATURAL    GAS.  87 

nearly  one- tenth  of  the  greatest  actual  production  per  square  mile  of  any 
of  the  leading  Pennsylvania  fields. 

It  is  obvious  that  the  total  amount  of  petroleum  in  the  rocks  under- 
lying the  surface  of  Ohio  is  large  beyond  computation,  but  in  its  diffused 
and  distributed  state,  it  is  entirely  without  value.  It  must  be  accumu- 
lated in  rocks  that  serve  as  reservoirs  before  it  becomes  of  economic 
interest.  In  respect  to  the  need  of  concentration  it  agrees  with  most 
other  forms  of  mineral  wealth. 

The  conditions  of  the  accumulation  of  oil  and  gas  have  come  into 
clearer  view  in  the  late  experience  of  Ohio  in  the  production  of  these 
substances  than  ever  before  in  the  entire  history  of  their  exploitation. 
There  are  several  interesting  and  important  points  connected  with  the 
subject  that  can  now  be  considered  settled.  The  sources  of  oil  and  gas 
do  not  need  to  be  further  discussed.  Their  well  nigh  universal  distribu- 
tion in  the  unaltered  strata  of  all  geological  ages  has  been  already  pointed 
out.  As  has  been  shown,  their  origin  is  to  be  found  in  some  form  of 
organic  matter  acted  on  by  some  form  of  chemical  force.  There  remain 
to  be  considered  the  mechanical  arrangements  and  the  order  of  the  strata 
by  which  concentration  and  large  accumulation  are  rendered  possible. 
The  subjects  pertaining  to  this  division  will  be  treated  under  the  follow- 
ing heads,  viz.,  Reservoir,  Cover,  Structure,  Rock  Pressure. 

a.     Reservoir. 

The  rocks  of  every  stratified  series  can  be  divided  into  two  general 
divisions  with  reference  to  their  porosity,  viz.,  the  permeable  and  the  im- 
permeable strata.  We  do  not  find,  however,  hard  and  fast  boundaries  in 
this  particular  any  more  than  elsewhere  in  nature.  Some  rocks  are  freely 
permeable,  others  are  less  so  and  still  others  resist  the  passage  of  water  so 
effectually  that  we  call  them  impermeable.  Sandstones  and  conglomer- 
ates, the  coarser  the  grain  the  better,  are  types  of  the  porous  group.  Shales, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  finer  the  grain  the  better,  represent  the  impervious 
series,  but  shales  of  the  slaty  order  are  often  fairly  permeable.  Dolomitic 
limestones  that  have  originated  in  fossiliferous  strata  and,  in  some  in- 
stances, crinoidal  limestones  are  also  found  to  furnish  excellent  examples 
of  the  first  division,  while  certain  other  forms  of  limestone  are  fairly  im- 
pervious. Shaly  sandstones  come  near  the  dividing  line,  though,  as  a 
rule,  a  small  percentage  of  diffused  shale  in  a  sandy  formation  detracts 
greatly  from  its  porosity,  or  even  renders  it  altogether  impermeable. 

Practically  it  comes  to  this,  that  sharp  and  clean  and  especially  coarse 
sandstones,  with  conglomerates  and  dolomitic  limestones,  when  the  latter 
have  been  derived  from  originally  fossiliferous  beds,  constitute  the  main 


88  GEOLOGY   OF    OHIO. 

reservoir  rocks  in  most  series.  These  porous  rocks  are  never  found  empty. 
They  generally  contain  water,  since  this  substance  is  almost  universally 
diffused  through  the  outermost  layers  of  the  globe.  If  found  within  four 
or  five  hundred  feet  of  the  surface,  the  water  is  mainly  fresh ;  but  if  the 
porous  rocks  are  struck  at  a  greater  depth,  they  are  generally  found  to  con- 
tain saline,  sulphur  or  brackish  water. 

These  porous  rocks  are  also  the  oil  and  gas  rocks  of  our  series.  It  hai 
already  been  shown  that  neither  cavities  nor  fissures  are  required  for  the 
storage  of  these  substances ;  they  take  their  chances  in  the  water  rocks  and 
can  go  wherever  water  goes.  Not  all  porous  rocks  contain  accumulations 
of  gas  or  oil,  but  the  majority  of  them  do  at  least  in  small  quantity  and  in 
portions  of  their  extent.  But  the  large  accumulations  of  these  substances 
are  of  insignificant  amount  when  compared  with  the  whole  area  of  th« 
stratum  in  which  they  are  found. 

It  often  happens,  and  in  fact  it  may  be  said  that  it  generally  happeni 
that  there  is  more  than  one  porous  rock  traversed  by  the  drill  in  a  deep 
well.  All  of  them  contain  water  in  parts  of  their  extent,  as  above  described, 
and  sometimes  all  may  contain  petroleum  or  gas  in  the  same  well.  When 
this  occurs,  the  oils  from  the  different  levels  often  vary  noticeably  in 
character.  The  uppermost  porous  rock  often  contains  fresh  water,  while 
the  deeper  beds  generally  hold  salt-water  of  varying  composition  and 
strength. 

The  porosity  of  the  reservoir  rocks  often  extends  to  great  distances. 
When  it  comes  to  gas  and  oil  territory,  this  porosity  has  been  so  abund- 
antly proved  and  has  been  found  so  full  of  practical  importance  that  im- 
portant legislation  has  been  based  upon  it.  In  productive  territory,  for 
example,  the  laws  of  several  States  provide  that  wells  must  not  be  aban- 
doned when  they  have  proved  destitute  of  oil  or  gas,  until  steps  have  been 
taken  by  plugging  them  to  prevent  the  surface  water  from  flooding  the 
deep-lying  rock.  Striking  proofs  of  this  porosity  are  also  supplied  in  the 
practical  development  of  many  gas-fields.  In  the  new  district  of  northwestern 
Ohio,  wells  separated  by  intervals  of  a  half  or  three-quarters  of  a  mile  are 
found  to  affect  each  other's  flow  and  pressure  to  an  important  degree,  and 
it  is  also  found  that  areas  of  several  consecutive  square  miles  can  some- 
times be  drained  of  their  gas  by  a  single  well. 

The  deductions  from  this  observation  are  of  the  highest  moment  in 
relation  to  the  life  of  the  fields. 

b.     Covtr. 

It  goes  without  saying  that  the  porous  rock  which  has  become  the 
reservoir  of  water,  oil  or  gas  .has  done  so  by  virtue  of  the  fact  that  its  con- 
tents, acquired  from  some  sufficient  source,  are  confined  within  it  by  am 


PETROLEUM    AND    NATURAL    GAS  89 

impervious  cover  which  generally  consists  of  shale.  This  element  is  obvi- 
ously a  vital  one  in  all  accumulation.  It  is  evident  that  of  the  three  con- 
ditions already  named,  source,  reservoir  and  cover,  the  source  must  come 
first  in  order  of  nature,  the  porous  rock  or  reservoir  next  and  last  of  all, 
the  cover.  But  in  point  of  fact,  the  sources  of  oil  are  so  wide-spread  that 
they  may  almost  be  taken  for  granted.  Petroleum  belongs  in  every  rock 
series  that  we  penetrate ;  there  are  also  but  few  sections  of  a  thousand  feet 
in  extent  that  do  not  contain  one  or  more  water-bearing  or  porous  rocks, 
and  thus  it  comes  about  that  practically  the  close-grained  cover  is  the  con- 
dition hardest  to  find.  This  is  shown  in  the  fact  that  wherever  an  imper- 
vious shale  is  met  with  in  the  descent  of  the  drill,  covering  a  porous  rock, 
we  are  warranted  in  expecting  the  presence  of  oil  or  gas  under  favorable 
conditions  of  structure.  The  accumulations  are,  of  course,  mainly  small, 
but  their  presence  testifies  to  the  influence  of  this  element  in  the  oil  and 
gas  series. 

The  facts  on  which  this  order  is  based  came  clearly  to  view  in  the  first 
experience  in  the  modern  search  for  petroleum  in  Western  Pennsylvania. 
Similar  facts  have  been  repeated  in  the  discovery  of  every  succeeding  field. 
That  these  covers  do  their  work  thoroughly  is  seen  in  the  fact  that  the 
boundaries  of  the  several  substances  under  discussion  are  in  many  cases 
sharp  and  well-defined.  A  descent  of  a  few  inches  will  often  unlock  a 
great  fountain  of  water,  oil  or  gas.  These  substances  are  wanting  alto- 
gether in  the  shales  until  the  last  inch  of  this  formation  has  been  passed. 

Almost  every  important  mass  of  shale  in  the  Ohio  series  has  been 
proved  to  be  somewhere  the  cover  of  accumulated  petroleum ;  as,  for 
example,  the  Cuyahoga  and  Berea  shales,  covering  the  Berea  grit ;  the  Ohio 
shale,  covering  the  Corniferous  limestone ;  the  Niagara  shale,  covering  the 
Clinton  group,  and  finally  the  Utica  shale,  covering  the  Trenton  limestone. 
Minor  deposits  of  shale  also  scattered  through  the  Coal  Measures  are  found 
to  have  a  like  effect. 

c.     Structure. 

A  third  vital  factor  in  all  petroliferous  accumulation  is  found  in  the 
structure  or  arrangement  of  the  porous  rock  that  contains  the  oil,  gas  and 
water.  But  the  porous  rock  is  never  affected  alone;  in  most  instances  the 
entire  series  with  which  it  is  associated,  exclusive  of  the  drift  deposits, 
have  been  uplifted  or  flexed  by  the  same  movement  to  which  it  has  been 
subjected. 

The  facts  brought  to  light  in  the  drilling  of  the  first  oil  wells  of  the 
country,  forty  years  ago,  suggested  to  the  geologists,  who  studied  them, 
the  influence  of  structure.  The  existence  of  arches  and  troughs,  or  in 
geological  language,  of  anticlines  and  synclines,  was  recognized  more  or 


9O  GEOLOGY   OF    OHIO. 

less  clearly,  and  an  obvious  and  rational  use  was  made  of  the  facts.  It 
requires  no  argument  to  show  that  if  gas  and  oil  are  associated  in  any 
porous  rock  that  has  been  bent  into  an  arch,  the  force  of  gravitation  will 
necessarily  affect  a  separation  of  these  substances  in  the  order  of  their 
speciiic  gravities.  An  anticlinal  theory  was,  therefore,  evolved  at  an 
early  day ;  but,  beyond  the  simple  statement  of  it,  little  progress  was 
made  for  thirty  years.  The  geological  work  done  in  connection  with  the 
remarkable  petroleum  production  of  Western  Pennsylvania,  though  of 
great  value  in  many  respects,  failed  to  bring  out  the  structural  facts  of  the 
productive  territory,  and,  indeed,  attention  was  rather  diverted  from 
these  facts  by  the  suggestion  of  other  elements  thought  to  be  concerned 
in  oil  accumulation. 

It  was  only  when  the  new  value  began  to  be  placed  on  natural  gas  in 
connection  with  its  utilization  on  the  large  scale,  which  occurred  about 
ten  years  since,  that  the  prominent  influence  of  structure  came  distinctly 
into  view.  For  the  most  effective  statement,  and  the  most  successful  use 
of  this  theory,  we  are  indebted  to  Professor  I.  C.  White,  of  Morgantown^ 
West  Virginia.  He  came  to  see,  with  perfect  distinctness,  that  the  gas- 
producing  territory  of  Western  Pennsylvania  and  West  Virginia  was 
strictly  confined  to  anticlinal  lines.  If  a  gas  well  seemed  to  occur  in  a 
syncline,  the  presence  of  the  gas  was  really  due  to  the  interruption  of  the 
syncline  by  a  low  fold  at  the  deepest  portion  of  the  basin — a  fact  of 
structure  which  is  very  frequently  met  throughout  the  entire  Appalachian 
region.  Other  limitations  and  qualifications  he  soon  came  to  recognize, 
but  th>  theory  was  only  strengthened  and  confirmed  by  the  apparent 
exceptions  to  it.  For  a  time  Professor  White's  statements  were  called  in 
question  by  other  geologists,  but  in  his  replies  to  their  criticism  he 
proved  himself  to  have  so  decided  an  advantage  that  interruptions  of 
this  sort  soon  ceased.  He  commended  the  theory,  moreover,  to  the  practi- 
cal men  engaged  in  the  exploration,  by  his  prompt  application  of  it  to 
prospective  territory,  approving  or  condemning  localities  on  this  basis  f 
and,  in  addition  to  this  fact,  he  located  a  considerable  number  of  excel- 
lent gas  wells  far  in  advance  of  previous  development  by  the  drill. 

The  oil  and  gas  production  of  Ohio,  and  especially  the  newer  phases 
of  this  production,  have  brought  the  strongest  confirmation  to  the  view 
that  structure  is  vitally  connected  with  all  the  important  supplies  of 
either.  The  facts  brought  to  light  in  the  development  of  the  Macksburg 
field  proved  to  be  very  important  in  this  connection.  Under  the  skillful 
interpretation  of  Mr.  F.  W.  Minshall,  of  Marietta,  it  was  shown  that 
the  productive  territory  of  this  field  consisted  of  a  well  defined  terrace  of 
the  oil  rock,  bounded  by  gas  on  the  rise  and  by  salt  water  on  the  descent. 
The  oil  terrace,  which  occupies  almost  a  geographical  level,  was  traced  by 


PETROLEUM    AND    NATURAL    GAS.  91 

the  surface  rocks  and  checked  by  the  well  records,  the  event  proving  that 
the  entire  series,  from  top  to  bottom  of  the  wells,  had  been  affected 
equally  by  the  same  forces  which  made  a  terrace  of  the  gas  rock.  In 
other  words,  the  terrace  shows  through  to  the  surface,  so  far  as  the  level  of 
any  particular  stratum  is  concerned ;  but  to  the  eye  the  effect  is  lost  on 
account  of  the  excessive  action  of  recent  erosion,  the  present  surface 
being  very  irregular.  These  facts  were  all  demonstrated  by  careful  in- 
strumental measurements  after  the  general  structure  had  been  made 
known. 

The  terrace  which  was  thus  found  proves  to  be  the  result  of  what 
may  be  called  a  suppressed  anticline.  The  force  which,  if  great  enough, 
would  have  resulted  in  a  well-marked  arch,  has  proved  able  only  to 
arrest  the  previous  dip  of  the  strata  for  a  short  space.  In  other  words, 
nature  began  to  build  an  arch  which  she  was  not  able  to  complete. 

It  now  seems  as  if  the  terrace  is  a  form  of  structure  particularly 
effective  in  petroliferous  accumulation.  It  gives  to  the  reservoir  relief  or 
variation  of  level  as  distinct  as  the  arch,  though  in  many  cases  less  pro- 
nounced in  its  influence. 

The  recent  experience  of  northwestern  Ohio  has,  however,  furnished 
a  greater  number  and  even  a  more  striking  series- of  facts  pertaining  to  the 
influence  of  structure  on  accumulation  than  the  older  fields.  This  dis- 
trict affords  many  advantages  for  the  determination  of  the  structural 
laws  which  govern  it.  Its  surface  is  almost  a  plain,  and,  furthermore,  is 
thoroughly  intersected  by  railroad  lines,  the  levels  of  which  afford  con- 
venient points  of  departure  in  establishing  the  elevations  of  well  heads. 
No  other  American  field  has  equaled  this  in  simplicity  of  structure,  but 
on  this  very  account  the  effect  of  the  structure  becomes  all  the  more 
easily  recognizable  and  traceable.  Moreover,  there  are  several  easily 
identifiable  horizons  passed  through  in  the  drilling  of  every  well,  which 
attest  and  prophesy  the  facts  that  the  oil  rock  IP  finally  found  to  show  a& 
to  its  structural  relations. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  give  details  in  this  connection  at  this  point.  A 
single  illustration  will  be  taken  from  the  famous  Findlay  field.  The 
drilling  of  the  first  dozen  wells  in  Findlay  showed  the  following  facts  of 
structure.  The  bedded  rocks  are  bent  at  this  point  into  a  very  1'ow  arch* 
the  axis  of  which  bears  approximately  north  and  south.  On  the  west 
side  the  arch  is  found  to  have  a  well  defined  boundary,  the  strata  descend- 
ing from  a  terrace,  or  an  approximately  horizontal  position,  150  feet,  in 
the  course  of  one-third  of  a  mile,  to  another  flat-lying  or  gently-sloping 
area.  In  other  words,  a  slope  of  150  feet  in  a  third  of  a  mile,  rising  to 
the  east,  connects  two  terraces  of  the  same  stratum,  the  surface  of  the 


92  GEOLOGY   OF    OHIO. 

country  meanwhile  lying  at  the  same  absolute  geographical  level.  The 
structure  can  well  be  called  a  monocline,  so  far  as  these  features  are  con- 
cerned, though  when  all  is  considered,  it  is  seen  to  be  as  previously  named, 
&  very  low  arch. 

The  distribution  of  gas,  oil  and  salt  water  in  the  Trenton  limestone 
follows  the  lines  of  geographical  level  in  a  very  interesting  way.  When 
the  field  was  first  opened,  each  element  had  a  definite  boundary.  The 
dry  gas  occupied  all  of  the  stratum  from  about  three  hundred  feet  below 
tide  water  to  about  four  hundred  feet  below ;  to  the  oil  a  vertical  measure- 
ment of  fifteen  to  twenty  feet  was  assigned  directly  below  the  gas,  while 
underneath  the  oil,  in  turn,  the  salt  water  found  its  place.  Sometimes, 
however,  the  latter  element  occurred  at  the  levels  where  the  oil  would 
properly  be  expected.  But  with  the  development  of  the  field  and  the  ex- 
haustion of  the  gas,  all  of  these  levels  have  been  gradually  changed  until 
the  salt  water  has  now  intruded  upon,  if  it  has  not  entirely  overrun  the 
whole  of  the  slope  and  the  terrace  as  well. 

In  the  oil  fields,  in  like  manner,  the  elevations  of  different  portions 
of  the  reservoir  are  always  found  connected  in  the  most  important  and 
significant  way  with  the  production.  Every  foot  is  counted  by  nature  in 
increase  or  loss  of  efficiency.  If  a  well  in  the  Lima  field,  for  example, 
shows  an  elevation  of  the  top  of  the  oil  rock  of  even  five  or  six  feet  in 
excess  of  the  wells  around  it,  it  becomes  thereby  a  gas  rock  for  a  few  days, 
instead  of  an  oil  rock. 

The  Upper  Sandusky  field  furnishes  excellent  illustrations  of  the 
same  law,  as  will  be  cleaVly  shown  on  a  subsequent  page. 

In  short,  the  rational  deductions  as  to  the  distribution  of  gas  and  oil 
in  a  reservoir,  common  to  themselves  and  to  water,  are  abundantly  sup- 
ported by  testimony  derived  from  the  Ohio  oil  fields,  both  old  and  new. 
There  is  but  little  obscurity  and  but  few,  if  any,  anomalies  in  the  facts 
so  far  as  known.  Certainly  there  is  nothing  to  raise  even  a  question  as  to 
the  validity  of  the  explanations  already  proposed. 

Closely  connected  with  the  same  line  of  facts  is  the  very  important 
element  in  gas  and  oil  production  that  remains  to  be  briefly  discussed  in 
a  few  succeeding  paragraphs. 

d.     Rock  pressure. 

What  is  known  as  rock  pressure  in  gas  wells  is  the  maximum  pressure 
reached  when  the  gas  is  shut  within  the  well.  It  is  supposed  to  be  the 
pressure  of  the  gas  in  the  rock  reservoir,  this  pressure  equalizing  itself 
throughout  the  new  space.  It  is  also  known  as  closed  pressure.  The 
open  pressure  of  the  gas,  on  the  other  hand,  is  the  pressure  registered  on 


PETROLEUM    AND    NATURAL    GAS.  93 

a  gauge  held  in  the  current  while  the  gas  is  escaping  freely  from  a  pipe  of 
any  size.  When  the  gas  escapes  from  the  casing,  a  pipe  of  five  and  five- 
eighths  inches  in  diameter,  it  requires  a  vigorous  well  to  produce  any 
eflect  on  an  ordinary  high-pressure  steam-gauge.  The  highest  pressure 
noted  in  the  casing  (five  and  five-eighths  inches)  of  any  Ohio  wells  up  to 
1889  was  six  or  six  and  one-half  pounds,  but  during  the  last  year  three 
wells  have  been  drilled,  the  first  flows  of  which  have  registered  from 
eighteen  to  thirty-five  pounds.  The  open  pressure  increases  rapidly  when 
the  opening  of  the  well  is  reduced  in  size.  A  well  that  showed  six  pounds 
in  the  casing  registered  20^  pounds  when  the  gas  was  made  to  escape 
through  a  four-inch  pipe.  The  rock  pressure,  or  closed  pressure  of  Tren- 
ton limestone  gas  varies  in  different  fields,  but  is  generally  the  same  in 
all  the  wells  of  one  immediate  neighborhood,  in  case  the  production  of 
the  wells  is  large.  The  present  usual  range  is  between  two  hundred  and 
three  hundred  pounds  to  the  square  inch.  Higher  figures  than  these  are 
sometimes  obtained,  especially  from  the  deeper  wells.  At  the  opening  of 
the  Findlay  field,  450  pounds  was  shown  in  most  of  the  wells.  The  rock 
pressure  in  the  Bowling  Green  field  was  about  the  same.  The  Carey  wells 
attained  a  pressure  of  435  pounds.  In  a  Tiffin  well  a  pressure  of  600 
pounds  was  registered,  the  graduation  of  the  gauge  stopping  at  this  figure. 
A  considerable  excess  was  indicated.  The  wells  of  Lancaster  have  shown 
a,  maximum  pressure  of  700  pounds  to  the  inch,  but  they  have  not  held 
these  extreme  figures  long.  The^  present  pressures  in  the  several  fields 
Trill  be  given  in  the  subsequent  chapters  of  this  report. 

In  the  Saint  Mary's  and  Saint  Henry's  gas  wells  the  original  range 
was  between  350  and  400  pounds.  In  the  Indiana  field  it  varied  between 
300  and  335  pounds  to  the  square  inch  in  the  instances  where  reliable  obser- 
vations were  obtained. 

The  closed  pressure  in  the  great  gas  wells  of  Pennsylvania  is  more  than 
twice  the  highest  pressure  found  in  Trenton  rock  gas.  Pressures  of  750 
pounds  are  reported  on  good  authority,  and  many  facts  are  on  record  indi- 
cating a  pressure  of  nearly  or  quite  200  pounds  beyond  this  figure.  The 
rock  pressure  of  the  Ohio  shale  gas  of  the  northern  part  of  the  State  rarely 
exceeds  100  pounds  to  the  square  inch. 

With  some  remarkable  exceptions  the  rock  pressure,  as  already  stated, 
is  generally  the  same  for  all  the  wells  of  a  particular  field,  whatever  their 
production  may  be.  In  other  words,  pressure  gives  in  itself  no  indication 
or  clew  to  the  amount  of  gas  a  well  yields.  By  joining  to  it,  however,  the 
element  of  time,  an  empirical  but  uncertain  calculation  of  the  volume  of 
gas  produced  may  be  made.  If  a  well  gains  a  certain  number  of  pounds 
pressure  in  a  certain  number  of  seconds  or  minutes,  for  example,  the  vol- 
ume may  be  measured  by  one  of  the  methods  presently  to  be  given  and 


94  GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO. 

then  used  as  a  check  on  other  like  increase  of  pressure  in  wells  of  the  same 
depth.  The  well  that  produces  the  largest  amount  of  gas  in  the  Findlay 
field  shows  the  same  closed  pressure  that  the  smallest  well  of  the  field 
shows ;  but  in  the  case  of  the  large  well  the  entire  pressure  is  reached  in 
one  or  two  minutes ;  in  the  other,  hours  are  required  for  it  to  creep  slowly 
up  to  its  maximum. 

The  phenomena  connected  with  high  rock-pressure  of  gas  and  oil  wells 
are  among  the  most  astonishing  and  impressive  in  the  entire  range  of 
mining  enterprise.  When  a  reservoir  of  the  character  above  named  is 
penetrated,  the  gas,  suddenly  released  from  a  pressure  of  300  to  950  pounds 
to  the  square  inch,  rushes  forth  with  amazing  velocity  and  indescribable 
force.  It  drowns  like  a  tornado  all  ordinary  sounds  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
well.  Unless  great  care  be  used  by  one  engaged  about  the  well  his  sense  of 
hearing  is  very  likely  to  be  permanently  impaired.  When  the  gas  is 
lighted  the  roar  is  greatly  increased  and  can  be  heard  for  miles.  The  light 
from  a  great  well  can  be  seen,  under  favorable  circumstances,  forty  miles 
away. 

The  cause  of  the  rock  pressure  of  gas  and  oil  wells,  is  a  subject  upon 
which  our  best  authorities  have  not  been  in  haste  to  commit  themselves, 
by  offering  definite  and  comprehensive  theories  to  account  for  the  facts. 
Three  causes  have  been  suggested  as  adequate  to  explain  the  results : 

(1)  The  gas  produces  its  own  pressure.     Solid  or  liquid  matters  are 
converted  into  the  gaseous  form  in  the  deeply  buried  porous  rocks  and  the 
gas  thus  formed  requires  larger  space  than  the  solid  bodies  from  which  it 
was  derived.     In  seeking  this  larger  space,  it  exerts  the  pressure  noted. 

(2)  The  weight  of  the  overlying  rock  produces  the  pressure  of  the  gas. 
According  to  this  view,  the  gas  is  in  the  rock  and  the  weight  of  the  earth 
above  it  exerts  a  constant  pressure  upon  it,  and  forces  it  out  with  the 
velocity  observed  whenever  an  exit  is  made  for  it. 

(3)  The  pressure  is  due  to  a  water  column  that  is  behind  the  gas  and 
oil.     The  porous  stratum  that  makes  the  reservoir  of  gas  and  oil  and  salt 
water,  and  which  always  has  an  impervious  roof,  somewhere  rises  to  the 
surface.     Water  entering  at  its  outcrops  will  exert  its  pressure  through  all 
the  flexures  of  the  stratum  upon  the  salt  water  that  it  contains,  and  thus 
upon  the  accumulations  of  oil  or  gas  that  are  held  within  the  arches  and 
terraces  of  the  stratum.     This  explanation  makes  the  flow  of  gas  and  oil 
depend  upon  precisely  the  same  cause  that  occasions  the  flow  of  water 
from  artesian  wells,  viz.,  a  water  head  of  greater  or  less  elevation,  at  a 
greater  or  less  remove. 

The  first  theory  doubtless  has  in  it  elements  of  truth.  The  beginning 
of  gas  pressure  in  any  rock  and  all  the  pressure  ever  found  in  some  forma- 
tions may  very  well  be  referred  to  this  source.  For  the  pressure  of  shale 


PETROLEUM    AND    NATURAL    GAS  95 

gas,  for  example,  no  other  cause  need  be  sought.  But  all  the  elements  per- 
taining to  this  theory  are  vague  and  un verifiable.  It  is  an  explanation  in 
name  more  than  in  reality.  Moreover,  the  facts  in  regard  to  the  great  oil 
and  gas  rocks  seem  to  require  a  cause  at  once  more  energetic  and  more  variable 
than  the  expansive  power  of  gas  would  furnish.  If  gas  originates  its  own 
pressure,  it  would  be  difficult  to  account  for  the  extreme  range  of  pressure 
that  we  find  in  the  same  stratum,  all  the  gas  of  which  has  essentially  the 
same  composition.  The  theory  certainly  is  inadequate  on  this  side,  and 
we  must  look  to  either  the  second  or  third  theory  for  a  satisfactory  explan- 
ation of  the  remarkable  facts  observed. 

The  second  explanation,  viz.,  that  which  refers  the  pressure  of  reser- 
voir gas  to  the  weight  of  the  superincumbent  rock,  appears  to  have  found 
the  largest  measure  of  popular  favor,  but  the  theory  is  certainly  unsound.  ' 
It  gives  Avay  when  subjected  to  the  slightest  examination.     Professor  Les- 
ley furnishes  an  excellent  discussion  of  this  theory  in  the  Annual  Report 
of  the  Pennsylvania  Survey  for  1885,  and  he  demonstrates  its  invalidity. 
The  rock  can  exert  no  pressure  on  the  gas,  as  he  clearly  shows,  unless  its  par- 
ticles are  free  to  move  upon  one  another,  or,  in  other  words,  unless  the  rock 
is  in  a  crushed  state.     The  pebbles  and  grains  among  which  the  particles 
of  gas  are  distributed,  unless  themselves  actually  moved,  can  exert  no 
pressure  on  the  gas,  as  Lesley  well  observes,  any  more  than  the  walls  of 
a  cave  can  exert  pressure  on  the  river  that  flows  through  it.     There  is 
nothing  whatever  to  support  the  belief  that  the  rock  exists  in  the  state 
which  this  theory  demands.     There  are  many  facts  that  demonstrate  the 
opposite  view.     No  force  can  be  found  adequate  to  crush  the  rock  at  the 
depths  at  which  the  gas  occurs.     The  slightest  examination  shows  that  the 
weight  of  the  overlying  rocks  is  altogether  insufficient.     The  Trenton  lime- 
stone, for  example,  in  its  nearest  outcrops,  is  a  firm,  strong  stone ;  and  all 
the  information  we  obtain  as  to  its  structure  in  the  gas  wells  points  to  the 
same  sort  of  rock  there.     But  at  its  lowest  measure  of  strength,  it  can  bear, 
without  giving  way,  720  tons  to  a  square  foot,  and  much  of  it  can  bear  four  or 
five  times  this  weight.   On  the  other  hand,  the  weight  of  the  superincumbent 
rock  that  is  to  do  the  work  of  crushing  the  Trenton  reservoir,  is  approx- 
imately one  ton  to  the  square  foot  for  every  fourteen  feet  in  height,  and 
there  would  thus  be  but  eighty  tons  pressure  on  a  foot  of  Trenton  lime- 
stone in  a  Findlay  well  at  a  depth  of  1,100  feet.     This  is  but  one-ninth 
of  the  lowest  resistance  of  the  rock,  and  but  an  insignificant  fraction  of  its 
highest  resistance  to  crushing  weight.     Besides  this  the  driller  finds  the 
rock  firm  and  compact  to  a  high  degree.     The  driller  can  not  be  deceived 
in  this  respect.     It  is  unnecessary  to  follow  this  subject  further.     There  is 
no  standing  ground  whatever  for  the  theory. 

When  we  come  to  the  third  theory  we  see  at  once  that  it  rests  on  a 


96  GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO. 

different  basis  from  the  theories  previously  discussed.  It  depends  upon 
principles  and  facts  of  familiar  experience  and  every-day  use.  Every  one 
is  acquainted  with  the  flow  of  artesian  wells.  The  present  theory  relegates 
gas  wells  to  the  same  category.  In  fact,  it  makes  the  flow  of  gas  from  the 
rock  reservoirs  which  the  drill  has  penetrated  due  to  the  same  cause  that 
propels  artificial  gas  through  the  mains  of  a  city,  viz.,  a  water  column 
behind  and  above  it.  This  theory  has  been  held  more  or  less  distinctly 
by  numerous  geologists.  Professor  I.  C.  White  was  one  of  the  first  to 
openly  adopt  it.  In  an  article  in  the  American  Manufacturer  early  in 
1887  he  urged  that  artesian  pressure  would  be  found  necessary  to  account 
for  the  compression  of  gas  in  the  great  reservoirs. 

Before  entering  more  fully  upon  the  discussion  of  the  question  to  what 
the  rock  pressure  of  gas  wells  is  due,  let  us  ask  another  question,  the 
answer  to  which  may  advance  us  in  our  inquiries.  The  driller  in  the  Ohio 
field,  as  well  as  in  all  other  oil  fields,  finds  gas  in  the  higher  levels  of  the 
productive  rock,  and,  at  a  somewhat  lower  range,  he  finds  the  stocks  of  oil, 
if  any,  with  which  the  reservoir  is  charged.  If  he  goes  below  the  horizon 
of  the  oil  or  gas,  or  if  he  goes  beyond  its  productive  limits,  he  reaches  at 
once  salt  water,  \vhich  rises  in  the  well  to  a  greater  or  less  height,  some- 
times filling  it  entirely,  and  sometimes  even  flowing  out  of  the  top  of  the 
well.  This  experience  is  universal  in  the  great  fields  of  the  United  States, 
at  least.  Every  oil  or  gas  field  has  a  margin  of  water,  generally  more  or 
less  saline,  surrounding  its  productive  portion  in  whole  or  in  part.  The 
influx  of  this  salt  water  is  one  of  the^iost  common  evidences  of  total  fail- 
ure in  wells  drilled  for  oil  or  gas.  The  moment  this  fatal  flood  is  reached 
all  hope  departs. 

The  question  which  should  first  be  considered  is  this :  "  Why  does 
salt  water  rise  in  wells  drilled  to  the  productive  rock,  but  outside  of  the 
productive  portion  of  the  rock  ?  " 

Whatever  explains  the  rise  of  the  salt  water  from  one  portion  of  the 
oil  rock  will  explain  the  flow  of  the  gas  or  oil  from  another  portion.  The 
explanation  that  should  reverse  this  order  and  make  the  rise  of  the  salt 
water  depend  on  the  pressure  of  gas  somewhere  held  in  the  rock  would  be 
ludicrously  inadequate.  There  is  an  ocean  of  salt  water ;  there  is  but  a 
thimbleful  of  gas.  The  gas  is  confined  to  narrow  streaks,  it  may  be,  on 
the  crests  of  anticlines,  and  it  occupies  but  a  few  feet  at  most  in  the  upper 
portion  of  the  rock,  while  the  salt  water  stretches  out  for  scores  of  miles  on 
every  side  and  through  great  depths  in  the  rock.  Salt  water  makes  the 
normal  and  well-nigh  universal  contents  of  the  oil  sands.  The  rare  excep- 
tions, in  locations  favored  by  the  accidents  of  structure,  are  the  stocks  of 
gas  and  oil,  which  in  reality  are  very  scanty,  but  which  by  comparison  with 
each  other  we  sometimes  call  great.  Their  total  volume  is  insignificant 


PETROLEUM    AND    NATURAL    GAS.  97 

when  compared  with  the  other  elements  with  which  they  are  associated. 
We  have  no  reason  to  believe  that  all  the  accumulations  of  petroleum  con- 
tained in  the  ciust  of  the  globe  would  exceed  a  few  cubic  miles  in  volume, 
but  the  s  ilt  water  contained  there  would  make  a  sea. 

What  makes  s.ilt  water  rise  when  its  porous  reservoirs,  are  tapped  by 
the  drill?  Let  us  ask  one  question  more:  What  makes  fresh  water  rise- 
under  similar  circumstances?  The  mystery  is  dispelled  with  regard  to 
artesian  water  supply.  Every  school-boy  knows  the  explanation  of  the 
facts  involved.  If  in  its  underground  course  water  his  dissolved  from  the 
rock  more  or  less  mineral  matter,  the  laws  which  governed  it  before  such 
solution  took  place  are  not  thereby  affected.  It  has  grown  a  little  heavier 
by  its  mineral  contents  and  consequently  will  not  rise  in  quite  as  high  a 
column  as  fresh  water  will,  but  this  is  all  the  difference.  Salt  water  rises 
in  the  rocks  in  which  it  has  been  sealed  from  precisely  the  same  cause  us 
fresh  water.  •  It  is  an  artesian  flow  or  an  artesian  ascent,  as  the  case  may 
be.  No  other  explanation  of  the  facts  involved  is  possible.  From  what 
source  is  the  water  head  derived?  The  apswer  is  the  same  as  for  all 
artesi  m  flow.  It  is  de  ived  from  water  entering  porous  st-ata  at  their  out- 
crops. The  conditions  for  aa  artesian  flow  must  all  be  found  united  in 
every  oil  or  gas  field. 

But  whatever  causes  the  salt  water  to  rise  in  wells  drilled  on  the.edge- 
of  an  oil  field  or  a  g  >s  field  is  beyoi  d  question  the  cause  of  the  flow  of  oil 
or  gas  contained  within  the  field.  This  is  demo istra ted  by  the  close  con- 
nection th  t  exists  between  the  salt  water  and  the  oil  or  gas.  Working 
from  the  edge  of  the  field  towards  the  center,  we  find  a  j  regressive  diminu- 
tion of  Silt  water  and  an  iucre-se  of  oil  or  gas  in  the  common  reservoir. 
With  the  exhaustion  of  a  field  the  oil  and  gas  are  followed  up  and  finally 
replaced  by  salt  water.  This  is  the  common  fate  of  gas  and  oil  wells;  the 
death  to  *  Inch  they  seem  to  be  a,  pointed. 

The  height  to  which  s  >lt  water  rises  in  wells  drilled  on  the  margin  of 
a  gas  field  gives  a  measure  of  the  force  of  the  gas  within  the  field.  This  is 
true,  at  least,  within  the  several  divisions  of  the  Trenton  limestone.  The 
height  to  which  the  gas  rock  rises  in  its  nearest  outcrop  will,  in  like  man- 
ner, determine  the  height  to  which  the  salt  water  will  rise  in  the  wells,  and 
this  factor  is  seen  to  control  the  rock  pressure  of  the  gas.  The  outcrops  of 
porous  rock,  it  is  evident,  must  be  f  llowed.  A  stratum,  though  contin- 
uous in  geological  n  ime,  may  be  so  changed  in  character  that  it  will  cease 
to  be  a  factor  in  problems  of  this  sort.  The  porous  character  of  the  Tren- 
ton limestone  appears  to  be  maintained  in  a  northerly  and  iiorthwesterly 
direction  from  the  new  gas  fields  and  it  is,  perhaps,  in  the  outcrops  of 
Michigan,  Illinois  and  Wisconsin  that  the  water  head  originates  which 
7  G. 


98  GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO. 

gives  its  spring  and  energy  to  the  gas  of  Findlay,  Bloomdale  and  St. 
Mary's,  and  also  to  that  of  Kokomo  and  Marion,  Indiana.  While  many 
questions  pertaining  to  the  subject  can  be  raised  that  can  not  be  fully 
answered  from  lack  of  knowledge  at  the  present  time,  it  still  appears  that 
the  only  rational  explanation  of  the  rock  pressure  of  gas  is  to  be  found  in 
the  artesian  pressure  of  the  water  that  accompanies  it. 

It  is  also  apparent  that  if  this  is  the  cause  the  fact  must  be  suscepti- 
ble of  demonstration.  If  we  know  the  height  to  which  the  salt  water 
rises  in  any  division  of  the  field,  and  if  we  know  the  specific  gravity  of 
the  salt  water,  by  taking  account  of  the  depth  of  a  well,  the  effective 
force  of  the  water  in  compressing  the  gas  can  be  calculated,  and  its  rela- 
tion to  the  observed  pressures  can  be  noted.  Agreement  between  the 
calculated  and  observed  pressures  in  a  sufficient  number  of  instances  and 
through  a  sufficient  range  of  figures  would  furnish  a  demonstration  of 
this  hydrostatic  theory. 

The  facts  that  we  need  to  know,  in  order  to  complete  the  demonstra- 
tion, have  been  suggested  in  the  preceding  paragraph.  They  are  as 
follows :  (a)  the  height  to  which  the  water  rises  in  wet  wells ;  (6)  the 
density  of  the  water ;  (c)  the  depth  at  which  the  water  is  found ;  (d) 
the  initial  rock  pressure  of  the  gas  when  found. 

Can  these  several  elements  be  obtained?  All  of  them,  it  can  be 
answered,  are  matters  of  observation,  and  if  an  intelligent  interest  in  the 
questions  could  be  assured  on  the  part  of  the  well-driller  no  difficulty 
would  be  experienced  in  supplying  all  the  information  necessary.  Part 
of  the  facts  are  always  easily  determinable  in  any  case.  The  questions 
have  not  been  urged  upon  the  driller,  however,  until  recently,  and  in 
regard  to  one  of  them,  viz.,  the  normal  rock  pressure  of  the  fields,  the 
only  time  for  noting  it  has  long  gone  by.  The  facts  can  be  obtained  only 
from  testimony  as  to  figures  observed  several  years  ago. 

(a)  As  to  the  height  to  which  the  salt  water  rises  in  wet  wells  there 
is  not  as  much  exact  information  as  could  be  desired.  The  general  facts 
of  its  occurrence  are  thoroughly  understood,  but  when  the  driller  has 
once  become  certain  that  his  well  is  a  salt  water  well,  as  a  rule,  "  the  sub- 
sequent proceedings  interest  him  no  more."  He  is  seldom  likely  to 
spend  more  time  or  trouble  upon  a  venture  that  has  already  proved  a 
dead  loss.  He  can  tell  you  that  the  water  rose  in  the  well  at  the  rate  of 
fifty  or  one  hundred  feet  in  an  hour,  or  that  it  came  up  even  into  the 
casing  for  100  or  200  feet,  but  the  exact  figures  he  has  no  curiosity  to 
obtain.  Some  of  these  statements  can  be  made,  however,  to  give  us  a 
clue  to  the  height  of  the  rise.  The  level  at  which  the  bottom  of  the 
casing  stands  is  one  of  the  important  points  in  the  record  of  every  well. 
In  the  salt  water  portions  of  both  the  Findlay  and  the  Lima  fields,  this 


PETROLEUM    AND    NATURAL    GAS.  99 

level  ranges  from  300  to  400  feet  above  tide.  If,  therefore,  we  know  that 
the  salt  water  rises  100  or  200  feet  above  the  bottom  of  the  casing,  we 
know  that  it  stands  from  400  to  600  feet  above  tide.  When  the  surface  of 
the  ground  in  which  the  well  is  begun  is  lower,  however,  than  in  the 
fields  already  named,  more  definite  figures  can  be  obtained.  Along  the 
shore  of  Lake  Erie,  and  in  the  Wabash  Valley  of  Indiana,  we  find  the 
most  reliable  data.  The  salt  water  in  these  districts  rises  so  nearly  to  the 
surface  that  its  height  can  be  definitely  determined,  or  it  may,  as  in  the 
last  named  district,  flow  from  the  well  in  a  true  artesian  fashion. 

In  a  well  drilled  at  Lindsey,  Sandusky  county,  Ohio,  for  example, 
the  elevation  of  the  well  head  was  about  that  of  the  railway  station,  viz  , 
622  feet  above  tide.  The  salt  water  rose  within  twenty-five  feet  of  the  top 
of  the  well,  or  in  round  numbers  to  a  height  of  600  feet  above  tide. 

In  the  Wabash  Valley  the  elevation  of  the  bottom  lands,  falls  below 
600  feet  above  tide.  Wells  drilled  to  the  Trenton  limestone  in  such 
stations  unlocked  a  flood  of  bitter  and  sulphurous  salt  water  that  flowed 
from  the  wellhead,  but  if  the  wells  were  drilled  in  the  adjacent  uplands 
the  water  would  rise  to  apparently  the  same  height  as  in  the  other  cases 
but  would  not  overflow.  In  a  few  instances  figures  were  given  which 
would  show  an  ascent  of  the  water  above  the  600  feet  level  already 
named.  At  Huntington,  for  example,  the  water  was  reported  to  rise  to  a 
height  of  900  feet  in  the  well.  This  would  make  its  actual  elevation  617 
feet  above  tide,  but  the  figure  given  was  undoubtedly  a  round  number 
and  not  the  result  of  careful  actual  measurement.  The  wells  that  were 
found  most  useful  in  this  connection  were  those  of  Wabash  City,  Peru 
and  Logansport,  and  of  the  districts  contiguous  to  these  towns. 

As  a  result  of  all  these  observations  it  can  be  stated  that  the  strong 
and  free  flow  of  salt  water  from  the  Trenton  limestone,  when  struck  in 
the  Ohio  and  Indiana  fields,  rises  to  approximately  the  same  height  in  all 
the  wells,  viz.,  to  about  600  feet  above  tide.  There  are  a  few  exceptions 
to  this  statement  in  which  the  water  rises  higher  than  600  feet. 

In  various  sections  of  the  field,  however,  the  salt  water,  when  found, 
does  not  rise  to  this  elevation.  Whenever  a  shorter  column  is  found,  the 
gas  that  occurs  nearest  lacks  the  full  pressure  of  the  main  fields.  Both 
facts  are  associated  with  a  harder  and  more  compact  condition  of  the 
petroliferous  limestone  than  that  found  in  productive  wells,  which  the 
driller  promptly  notices  and  from  which  he  draws  valid  conclusions. 

This  600  feet  rise  of  the  salt  water  represents  the  height  of  some  out- 
crop of  the  porous  condition  of  the  Trenton  limestone.  We  find  such 
outcrops  on  the  shores  of  Lakes  Superior  and  Huron  at  approximately  the 
same  elevation  as  that  which  the  salt  water  reaches.  Fresh  water  finds 
access  to  the  limestone  in  these  outcrops,  but  its  influence  while  available 


IOO  GEOLOGY   OF    OHIO. 

for  pressure  would  not  go  far  towards  changing  the  character  of  the 
peculiar  bitterns  or  brines  that  occupy  this  great  sheet  in  its  subterranean 
expansion.  , 

(6)  The  specific  gravity  of  the  salt  water  that  occupies  the  Trenton 
limestone  is  high.  Several  determinations  made  by  the  Survey  show  a 
gravity  of  1.1,  and  some  samples  were  even  heavier.  A  column  of  fresh 
water,  one  foot  in  height  and  having  one  square  inch  for  the  section, 
weighs  .43285  pound  avoirdupois.  The  average  weight  of  such  a  column 
of  sea  water  is  .445  pound,  but  the  Trenton  brine  when  counted  at  1.1 
is  found  to  weigh  .476  pounds  for  twelve  cubic  inches.  The  heaviest 
samples  would  even  reach  a  weight  of  .5  pounds  to  twelve  cubic  inches. 

The  gravity  undoubtedly  differs  in  different  samples  of  the  brine  and 
this  element  accordingly  introduces  to  this  extent  a  variable  factor  into 
the  calculations.  Its  influence  could  not,  however,  in  any  case  affect  the 
result  beyond  a  few  feet  in  a  thousand. 

(c)  The  depth  at  which  the  gas  or  water  is  obtained  is  the  one  ele- 
ment in  the  calculation  that  can,  as  a  rule,  be  definitely  ascertained.    The 
depth  at  which  the  Trenton  limestone  is  struck  is  one  of  the  princi- 
pal facts  in  the  history  of  every  well.     The  gas  generally  lies  not  lower 
than  thirty  or  forty  feet  below  the  top  of  the  limestone. 

(d)  The  remaining  inquiry,  that,  namely,  pertaining  to  the  original 
rock  pressure  of  the  wells,  does  not  generally  admit  of  present  determina- 
tion and  we  are  obliged  to  go  back  to  the  records  of  the  earliest  wells  in 
each  main  section  of  the  firld.     There  is  but  one  date  in  the  history  of  a 
gas  field  when  its  rock  pressure  can  be  properly  obtained  and  that  date  is 
at  the  drilling  of  the  first  wells.     As  wells  are  multiplied,  and  especially 
as  the  gas  is  utilized,  the  pressure  is  soon  reduced.     If  time  enough  could 
be  given,  and  if  the  wells  could  be  completely  closed,  the  field  would 
undoubtedly  regain  its  normal  pressure,  but  this  restoration  of  the  com- 
pressing force  would  in  most  cases  be  gradual  and  not  immediate. 

There  would  be  a  slight  reduction  in  this  force  in  any  case  from  the 
fact  that  by  the  exhaustion  of  a  portion  of  the  gas  the  salt  water  would 
reach  a  slightly  higher  final  level  in  the  reservoir  than.it  previously 
occupied. 

When  we  inquire  as  to  the  first  records  of  rock  pressure,  we  find 
several  elements  of  uncertainty  as  to  the  facts.  Gauges  were  not  applied 
in  some  instances  until  the  wells  had  been  open  for  weeks  or  months. 
The  gauges  themselves  are  not  always  trustworthy  in  the  record  of  the 
high  figures  that  the  wells  require.  The  natural  tendency  to  make  as  good 
a  showing  of  the  field  as  possible  often  leads  to  the  reporting  of  the  pres- 
sure in  round  numbers  and  these  are  never  below  the  actual  figures.  In 
the  list  of  early  pressures  noted,  the  following  are  counted  fairly  trust- 


PETROLEUM    AND    NATURAL    GAS.  IOI 

worthy  and  also  fairly  representative  of  the  several  fields.  All  are  based 
on  observations  of  the  author  except  those  for  which  other  authority  is 
given.  The  highest  pressure  noted  in  any  gas  well  derived  from  the 
Trenton  limestone  was  found  in  the  Loomis  and  Nyman  well  of  Tiffin. 
The  gauge  used  read  only  to  600  pounds.  This  figure  was  reached  and 
passed,  the  well  indicating  a  considerable  surplus  beyond  600  pounds. 
The  Upper  Sandusky  well  No.  1,  as  reported  by  Dr.  A.  Billhardt,  of  the 
Boa»d  of  Gas  Trustees,  showed  a  pressure  of  515  pounds.  The  Kelly 
well  No.  1,  known  as  the  Godsend  well.  Bloom  township,  Wood  county, 
showed  a  pressure  of  465  pounds,  as  reported  by  Mr.  J.  Stock,  of  the 
Northwestern  Ohio  Natural  Gas  Company.  This  measurement  was  not 
taken  until  some  time  after  the  well  was  drilled.  The  Bairdstown  well, 
as  reported  by  Mr.  M.  C.  Briggs  and  many  others,  showed  a  pressure  of 
460  pounds.  Higher  figures  are  recalled  as  having  been  observed  in  it 
originally,  but  no  authentic  record  was  made  of  them  at  the  time,  and 
they  can  not  therefore  be  counted  any  thing  more  than  tradition.  There 
is  nothing  improbable  in  them,  however,  as  will  presently  be  shown. 
These  figures  are  given  as  515  pounds.  The  Pioneer  well  at  Findlay,  and 
other  wells  drilled  in  the  town  during  the  first  year  showed,  according  to 
Mr.  W.  M.  Martin,  the  contractor  who  finished  most  of  them,  a  pressure 
of  450  pounds.  The  original  pressure  for  part  of  the  field  was  un- 
doubtedly much  more  than  this.  The  Axe  well  of  St.  Mary's,  according 
to  the  observations  of  Mr.  A.  C.  Reichelderfer,  and  many  others,  alter 
blowing  into  the  air  for  three  months,  showed  a  pressure  of  390  pounds. 
The  first  well  at  St.  Henry's,  according  to  the  testimony  of  Judge  Dennis 
Dwyer,  of  Dayton,  for  whom  it  was  drilled,  after  treatment  similar  to 
that  named  in  the  last  instance,  showed  a  pressure  of  375  pounds.  Pass- 
ing into  Indiana,  the  Kokomo  well  No.  4,  showed  a  pressure  of  320  pounds, 
six  months  after  the  field  was  opened.  Col.  J.  T.  Stringer,  Secretary  of 
the  Natural  Gas  Company,  informed  me  that  the  first  wells  registered,  to 
his  knowledge,  328  pounds.  In  Mirion,  well  No.  3,  showed  at  the  opening 
of  the  field  323  pounds  pressure.  The  wells  at  Muncie,  according  to  com- 
mon report,  has  a  pressure  of  less  than  300  pounds.  The  testimony  of 
some  good  observers  was  to  the  effect  that  it  was  between  280  and  290 
pounds.  The  figures  for  Tiffin,  Upper  Sandusky.  Findlay  and  Marion, 
Indiana,  were  all  obtained  when  these  fields  were  freshly  opened. 

These  figures  will  now  be  combined  with  other  data  from  the  respect- 
ive wells,  and  to  them  will  be  added  for  comparison  a  column  contain- 
ing "calculations  of  the  pressure  that  should  result  from  the  following 
factors,  viz.,  an  assumed  height  of  the  salt  water  head  to  600  feet  above 
tide,  and  an  assumed  specific  gravity  of  the  salt  water  of  1  1,  which 
jives  .476  pounds  to  the  square  inch  for  every  foot  in  height.  To  the 


IO2 


GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO. 


depth  of  the  gas  rock  below  tide  must  be  added  the  600  feet  to  which  the 
salt  water  rises  above  tide.  This  sum  will  be  the  effective  water  column. 
The  pressure  will  be  the  product  of  this  sum  and  the  weight  of  a  column 
of  the  water  one  foot  in  height,  which  is  .476  pounds. 


Locations. 

Depth  to  gas. 

Relation  of  gas 
rock  to  sea  level. 

Original 
pressure. 

Calculated  pressure. 

Tiffin,  Loomis  &  Wyman  well  
Upper  Sandusky  well,  No.  1  

1,500  fe< 
1,280 
1,145 
1,112 
1,128 
1,159 
1,156 
936 
876 
900 

it. 

747ft 
478 
395 
365 
336 
238 
200 
98 
78 
*  0 

*  At 

.  below 
tide  le 

^ide. 
vel. 

600tt 
515 
465 
460 
450 
390 
375 
328 
323 
280-290 

S.+ 
1 

1,347  X  .476—641  ft 
1,078  X  .476=513 
995  X  .476=474 
965  X  .476=459 
936  X  .476=445 
838  X  .476=399 
800  X  476    385 

s. 

Bloom  Township  Kelly  well,  No.  1 
Bairdstown  well,  No.  1  
Findlay  Pioneer  well  

St.  Mary's,  Axe  well  

St.  Henry's,  Dwyer  well 

Kokomo  well,  No.  4  

698  X  476    332 

Marion  well  No  3 

678  X  476  —  323 

Muncie  City  wells  

600  X  .476=286 

The  agreement  between  the  last  two  columns  of  the  tables  affords 
nothing  less  than  a  demonstration  of  the  principal  cause  of  the  rock  press- 
ure of  natural  gas.  It  is  due  to  the  weight  of  the  salt  water  that  occupies 
the  porous  rock  jointly  with  itself,  though  by  a  very  unequal  partnership, 
and  the  water  pressure  in  turn  is  unmistakably  of  artesian  origin.  A 
better  knowledge  of  the  facts  may  modify  to  some  small  extent  the 
assumed  data,  but  it  is  certain  that  the  general  relations  expressed  above 
indicate  a  law  of  nature  bearing  upon  the  question  with  which  this  sec- 
tion was  begun,  viz.,  what  is  the  cause  of  the  rock  pressure  of  natural 
gas  ?  The  close  correspondences  of  the  taj^le  may  be  accidental  to  a  small 
extent.  The  general  relation  is  all  that  need  be  insisted  on.  Strictly,  we 
ought  to  reckon  each  field  from  the  salt  water  level,  whereas  the  figures 
given  are  those  that  show  the  depth  at  which  gas  was  found.  In  several 
instances,  however,  and  particularly  in  those  which  show  the  closest 
agreements,  the  salt  water  level  is  but  little  lower  than  that  of  the  gas. 
An  increase  of  pressure  beyond  the  figures  reported  could  however  be  ac- 
counted for  on  this  basis  in  some  of  the  fields.  For  example,  the  great 
Simons  well  of  Bloom  township  is  reported  to  have  shown  an  original 
pressure  of  520  pounds.  The  Bairdstown  well  is  also  reported  to  have 
shown  515  pounds.  These  figures  stand  for  a  depth  of  the  salt  water  of 
400  to  490  feet  below  tide,  which  is  more  than  100  feet  below  the  original 
level  of  the  gas.  There  is  nothing  improbable  in  such  a  relation,  however. 

The  results  of  this  discussion  can  be  summed  up  in  the  following 
statement,  viz.,  the  rock  pressure  of  Trenton  limestone  gas  is  due  to  a  salt  woter 
column,  measured  from  about  600  feet  above  tide,  1o  the  If  vel  of  the  stratum 
which  holds  the  gas.  The  law  is  here  limited  to  the  Trenton  limestone,  for 
the  reason  that  the  data  were  derived  from  the  wells  of  this  horizon,  but 


PETROLEUM    AND    NATURAL   GAS.  103 

it  is  exceedingly  improbable  that  the  gas  production  of  this  stratum 
differs  in  any  important  way  from  that  of  any  other  great  gas  rock. 

The  importance  of  this  deduction  will  not  escape  observation.     A 
few  obvious  inferences  from  it  will  close  this  discussion. 

1.  There  is  no  danger  that  the  great  gas  reservoirs  of  to  day  will 
"  cave  in  "  or  "  blow  up  "  after  the  gas  is  withdrawn  from  them.     The 
gas  will  never  leave  the  porous  rock  in  which  it  has  been  stored  until  it  is 
obliged  to  leave  by  the  pressure  of  the  water  that  is  behind  it.     The  last 
end  of  a  gas  rock  is  a  water  rock  or  an  oil  rock.  Considerable  uneasiness  has 
been  caused  in  the  minds  of  even  reasonably  well-informed  persons  by 
the  sensational  articles  that  have  appeared  from  time  to  time  in  the 
newspapers,  predicting  the  subsidence  of  extensive  areas  from   under 
which  the  gas  has  been  withdrawn,  or  explosions  resulting  from  admix- 
ture of  air  and  gas  as  the  latter  is  diminished  in  the  reservoirs.     The  so- 
called  science  on  which  these  predictions  are  based  is  of  the  spurious  sort, 
and  the  authors  of  these  predictions  have  been  speculating  in  regard  to  sub- 
jects of  which  they  had  no  adequate  knowledge.     There  is  not  the  shadow 
of  a  shade  of  danger  in  sight  in  these  directions. 

2.  This  doctrine  lays  the  ax  at  the  root  of  all  the  optimistic  theories 
that  blossom  out  in  every  district  where  natural  gas  is  discovered,  and 
especially  among  the  real  estate  speculators  of  each  new  field,  to  the  effect 
that  nature  will  not  fail  to  perpetually  maintain  or  perpetually  renew  the 
supplies  which  we  find  so  delightfully  adapted  to  our  comfort  and  service. 
Profound  opinions  of  this  sort,  coming  from  such  sources,  have  constituted 
a  large  part  of  our  newspaper  literature  on  these  subjects  hitherto,  but 
the  logic  of  events  is  rendering  these  claims  more  and  more  untenable 
each  day,  and  they  are  blind,  indeed,  who  now  pretend  to  see  any  promise 
of  an  unfailing  supply. 

3.  Unwelcome  though  it  may  be,  this  doctrine  ought  to  be  kept 
clearly  and  constantly  before  the  communities  that  have  begun  to  enjoy 
the  inestimable  advantages  of  the  new  fuel.     If  they  believe  that  the  sup- 
ply is  indefinitely  great  or  that  it  is  being  constantly  renewed,  they  can 
scarcely  be  brought  to  employ  any  proper  economy  in  its  use,  but  just  as 
far  as  they  accept  the  demonstrated  limitation  of  the  supply,  they  will  be 
ready  to  adopt  all  proper  measures  for  husbanding  the  stock  to  which 
they  have  obtained  access.     The  doctrine  has  also  an  important  bearing 
on  the  question  as  to  what  uses  natural  gas  should  be  put.    Manufacturing 
establishments  of  any  sort  that  consume  a  million  or  more  feet  in  a  day 
can  not  be  greatly  multiplied  in  any  Ohio  field  without  rendering  a 
tolerably  speedy  exhaustion  of  the  supply  a  certainty. 

4.  When  the  salt  water  takes  possession  of  a  former  gas  rock  it  comes 
to  stay.     A  permanent  equilibrium  is  established  by  its  advent  in  the 


IO4  GEOLOGY    OF   OHIO. 

place  of  the  unstable  equilibrium  which  prevailed  so  long  as  the  gas  re- 
mained imprisoned  in  the  arches  of  the  rock.  The  "rest"  which  it  is 
sometimes  proposed  to  grant  to  an  overworked  and  prematurely  exhausted 
gas  field  will  be  a  long  one.  Nothing  but  small  and  short-lived  accumu- 
lations can  ever  be  found  in  it  again. 

5.  Of  the  original  rock  pressure  of  any  field  not  all  can  be  counted 
available  for  the  supply  of  the  pipes  that  are  to  carry  the  gas  away.  There 
is  a  large  fraction  that  must  always  be  left  upon  the  well,  if  the  best  re- 
sults of  production  are  expected.  This  is  called  "  back  pressure."  The 
amounts  and  the  proportions  required  vary  in  different  fields,  but  in 
northern  Ohio  it  is  seldom  safe  to  reduce  the  pressure  below  one-third  of 
its  original  figure.  If,  for  example,  the  gas  showed  450  pounds  pressure 
at  first,  it  should  never  be  allowed  to  flow  with  less  than  150  pounds  on 
the  well.  In  other  words,  only  the  surplus  of  gas  above  150  pounds  be- 
longs to  the  line.  As  the  energy  of  the  field  decreases,  which  is  shown  in 
the  diminution  of  the  r  >ck  pressure,  the  amount  of  back  pressure  to  main- 
tain the  protection  of  the  gas  must  be  increased,  which  is  the  same  as  say- 
ing that  the  available  amount  of  gas  is  constantly  decreasing.  Nothing  is 
so  destructive  of  a  gas  field  as  to  allow  the  wells  to  run  "  wide  open"  or 
without  back  pressure.  Such  a  course  is  always  an  invitation  and  a  per- 
suasion to  tKe  oil  and  water  by  which  the  gas  is  surrounded  to  come  up 
higher  and  the  invitation  is  always  accepted.  In  the  case  of  rival  cor- 
porations occupying  the  same  field,  it  sometimes  happens  that  it  seems  to 
the  interest  of  one  to  exhaust  the  field  as  rapidly  as  possible.  To  accom- 
plish this  result  but  two  things  are  necessary,  first,  to  drill  a  good  many 
wells,  and  secondly  to  allow  them  to  flow  with  the  gates  opened  full. 


PLATE    II. 


[Sea,  level  £ 


S E CT ID N S 'SHOW ING  GEOLOGIC ALJSTRUCT-URE 


NORTH  WESTERN'OHIO 


HORIZONTAL  SCALE  OF  MILLS 

10. 2Q JO * 


VERTICAL  SCALEOF 


\TR£NTON  LIMESTONE 


\UTICA 


^  ESSJ  HUDSON  fi/VCff  •SHALE 

='  SHALE 

' 


NIAGARA  LIMESTONE 

»         SHALE. 
CLIH  TON  LIMES TONL  ELi 


Tff3LOWe.fi  HCLDEfiBCRG 


CHAPTER    III. 


THE  TRENTON  LIMESTONE  AS  A  SOURCE  OF  OIL  AND  GAS 

In  the  present  chapter  the  development  of  the  Trenton  limestone  as 
a  source  of  oil  and  gas  will  be  continued  irom  the  date  at  which  it  was 
closed  in  the  last  preceding  volume  of  the  State  Geological  Survey,  viz., 
Vol.  VI,  Economic  Geology  of  Ohio.  In  this  last  named  work  a  fairly 
complete  account  of  the  facts  which  make  up  this  surprising  history  to 
the  fall  of  1887  was  given,  and  in  a  supplementary  chapter  a  few  facts 
gathered  from  the  first  two  or  three  months  of  1888  were  published.  It 
will  therefore  be  necessary  in  the  present  review  to  take  up  the  history 
from  the  spring  of  1888  and  continue  it  to  the  present  time,  covering  a 
period  of  about  two  years.  For  the  benefit  of  those  readers  who  are  not 
acquainted  with  and  can  not  obtain  access  to  the  above  named  volume,  a 
brief  resume  of  the  leading  facts  that  were  established  in  it,  pertaining  to 
the  new  and  important  source  of  petroleum  will  here  be  given. 

Discovtry  of  Gas  at  Findlay. 

9 

(1)  The  discovery  of  high  pressure  gas  in  the  Trenton  limestone  was 
made  in  Findlay  in  November,  1884.  During  1885  a  dozen  wells  were 
drilled  here,  the  best  of  which  reached  a  production  of  three  and  a  half 
million  cubic  feet  per  day.  The  first  great  well  at  Findlay,  viz.,  the  Karg 
well,  was  struck  on  January  20,  1886.  It  gave  new  character  to  the  entire 
field.  Its  production  from  the  casing  was  about  fourteen  million  cubic 
feet  per  day,  and  from  the  four-inch  tubing  about  twelve  million  cubic 
feet  per  day.  Since  that  time  the  development  and  the  utilization  of 
Findlay  gas  have  been  pushed  forward  very  rapidly. 

The  first  oil  obtained  from  the  new  source  was  found  in  a  well  drilled 
in  Lima  in  May,  1885.  Oil  was  also  found  dunng  the  same  year  and  at 
but  little  later  date  at  Findlay.  The  first  large  production  of  oil  from 
any  well  is  to  be  credited  to  the  Hume  well  of  Lima,  which  was  completed 
in  the  Spring  of  1886.  It  produced  250  barrels  for  the  first  day.  The  full 
development  of  the  Trenton  limestone  as  a  source  of  oil  production  was 
not  accomplished  before  the  middle  of  1887. 


1C  6  GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO. 

(2)  These  large  productions  of  gas  and  oil  from  a  Lower  Silurian 
limestone  were  entirely  unexpected.     It  would  be  bard  to  say  whether  the 
geologist  or  the  oil  producer  was  most  surprised  by  these  results.     That 
the  Trenton  limestone  is  petroliferous  to  a  small  extent  was  long  ago 
known  at  least  to  the  geologist.     The  fact  was  distinctly  pointed  out  by 
Dr.  T.  Sterry  Hunt  in  his  Geological  Essays.     He  showed  that  the  outcrop 
of  this  great  stratum  on  the  Manitoulin  Island  is  charged  with  oil,  and 
further  that  a  well  drilled  into  the  stratum,  thirty  or  forty  years  ago, 
produced  a  number  of  barrels  of  oil.     Dr.  Hunt  also  argued  very  earnestly 
in  favor  of  the  view  that  limestones  are  the  true  sources  of  oil.    But 
neither  he  nor  any  one  else,  so  far  as  known,  ever  ventured  to  suggest  or 
even  to  hint  that  this  widespread  stratum  would  become  one  of  the  great 
oil  rocks  of  the  continent  and  the  world.     Least  of  all,  did  the  sagacious 
men  who  have  been  for  the  last  forty  years  engaged  in  oil  production 
have  any  suspicion  of  such  a  result.     The  Ohio  experience  constitutes  an 
entirely  new  chapter  in  the  geological  as  well  as  in  the  practical  history 
of  petroleum  production.     No  one,  as  has  been  said,  suspected  it,  or  at 
least  no  one  had  prophesied  it. 

(3)  By  the  study  of  the  facts  of  the  new  fields,  the  conditions  of  it» 
oil  and  gas  production  soon  came  to  view  with  great  distinctness.     In 
the  first  place,  it  was  learned  that  the  common  reservoir  of  both  of  these 
substances  was  not  a  true  limestone,  as  the  name  of  the  stratum  might 
lead  us  to  suppose,  but  that  it  consisted  of  orie  or  more  sheets  of  magnesian 
limestone  or  dolomite,  these  sheets  being  situated  either  at  the  very  sum- 
mit of  the  series,  or  distributed  at  one  or  more  levels  in  the  uppermost 
fifty  to  one  hundred  feet  of  the  formation.     The  composition  of  the  Tren- 
ton beds  generally  is  that  of  an  ordinary  impure  limestone.     It  contains 
from  eighty  to  ninety  per  cent,  of  carbonate  of  lime  and  from  five  to  fif- 
teen per  cent,  of  silicious  impurities.     Occasionally,  however,  thin  beds 
of  exceptionally  pure  limestone  are  brought  to  light  by  the  drill,  carrying 
ninety-five  to  ninety-nine  per  cent,  of  carbonate  of  lime.     This  form  of 
the  rock  frequently  occurs  at  the  very  summit  of  the  series,  directly  over- 
lying the  gas  rock  proper. 

The  oil  and  gas  rock,  on  the  other  hand,  as  has  been  said,  is  generally 
a  fairly  pure  dolomite  of  about  fifty-four  per  cent,  of  carbonate  of  lime, 
and  forty-four  per  cent,  or  less  of  carbonate  of  magnesia.  The  silicious 
impurities  are  commonly  included  within  a  small  figure  and  their  absence 
in  this  connection  deserves  to  be  noted,  for  it  shows  that  the  limestone 
from  which  the  dolomite  was  derived  by  metamorphosis  was  of  a  very 
pure  character,  resembling,  in  fact,  the  last  phase  of  the  calcareous  rock 
that  was  described  above,  If  silicious  impurities  to  a  large  extent  had 


THE   TRENTON    LIMESTONE.  IO7 

ever  been  present  in  the  limestone,  they  would  be  there  to-day,  as  there 
are  no  means  known  by  which  they  can  be  removed  from  a  stratum  with 
which  they  have  once  been  incorporated. 

The  precise  steps  by  which  a  true  carbonate  of  lime  is  converted  into 
a  magnesian  carbonate  or  dolomite,rwe  not  do  know,  but  the  process  is 
one  that  has  been  carried  on  in  nature  on  an  extremly  large  scale.  Half 
of  the  limestones  of  the  Ohio  series  are  dolomites,  many  of  them  of  excep- 
tional purity.  As  deduced  from  a  somewhat  limited  series  of  facts  and 
observations,  the  following  steps  in  the  history  of  the  dolomitization  of 
the  Trenton  limestone  are  suggested  as  probable.  In  the  first  place,  the 
original  cap  or  uppermost  beds  of  the  great  formation  consisted  of  very 
pure  carbonate  of  lime,  derived  from  the  remains  of  crinoids  or  stone  lilies. 
The  uppermost  beds  at  Trenton  Fails,  N.  Y.,  have  this  constitution  to-day. 
They  consist  of  very  pure  crinoidal  limestone.  Secondly,  the  purest  beds 
and  those  only  admitted  the  magnesian  replacement  in  which  the  dolo- 
mitization consists;  one-half  of  the  atoms  of  carbonate  of  lime  being 
removed  and  their  places  being  supplied  with  atoms  of  carbonate  of  mag- 
nesia derived  from  the  sea  water.  By  means  of  this  replacement,  the  rock 
became  porous,  the  new  crystals  never  entirely  filling  the^spaces  from 
which  the  lime  crystals  had  been  removed.  The  impure  portions  of  the 
rock  would  have  resisted  this  change  in  all  its  phases. 

Be  the  origin  what  it  may,  it  soon  became  evident  in  the  development 
of  the  new  horizon  of  oil  that  all  its  value  was  associated  with  this  dolo- 
mitic  composition.  Whenever  the  normal  composition  of  the  limestone 
above  described  was  found,  the  stratum  was  dry  and  unproductive,  so  far 
as  gas  and  oil  were  concerned. 

In  the  second  place,  it  was  soon  learned  that  each  productive  field 
was  surrounded  by  salt  water,  or  at  least  that  salt  water  made  a  part  of  its 
boundary,  while  another  part  of  the  boundary  was  often  found  to  be  de- 
termined by  the  non-porous  condition  of  the  Trenton  limestone.  The 
level  at  which  salt  water  was  reached  in  each  field  proved  to  be  fairly  con- 
stant, and  this  level  could  be  counted  a  dead  line  as  to  oil  or  gas.  Wher- 
ever the  drill  descended  to  this  or  to  any  lower  level,  the  rock  was  found 
occupied  with  the  heavy  brine  peculiar  to  this  horizon.  The  dead  line 
for  the  Findlay  field  was  found  to  be  five  hundred  feet  below  tide  water ; 
for  the  Lima  field,  four  hundred  feet  below  tide ;  for  the  Saint  Mary's  dis- 
trict, about  350  feet  below ;  while  west  of  the  State  line,  in  the  great 
Indiana  gas  field,  the  salt  water  was  reached  at  a  hundred  feet  below  tide. 
The  inference  was  soon  drawn  that  for  the  entire  productive  territory,  the 
line  of  500  feet  below  tide  could  be  taken  as  a  dead  line.  Subsequent  ex- 
ploration has  brought  several  exceptions  to  this  deduction,  but  only  one 
of  them  is  thus  far  important,  that,  viz.,  of  the  Gibsonburg  oil  field.  The 


IO8  GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO. 

exceptions,  as  a  matter  of  course,  depend  on  the  discovery  of  other  arches 
or  terraces  in  the  series  at  a  lower  level  than  those  of  the  Fiodlay  field. 
Aside  from  the  Gibsonburg  field,  none  of  these  arches  have  proved  large 
enough  to  contain  any  considerable  amount  of  oil  or  gis,  and  most  of 
them  have  cost  in  their  development  a  good  deal  more  than  has  been  got 
out  of  them.  Bryan,  Tiffin  and  Oak  Harbor  can  be  named  as  centers  of 
these  out-lying  fields,  the  last  being  the  most  favorable  of  the  list.  As 
the  work  of  exploration  proceeds,  other  exceptions  will  probably  be  found, 
but  there  does  not  seem  to  be  room  for  very  large  or  very  important 
additions  to  present  territory  between  the  various  points  that  have  been 
already  proved. 

The  results  of  the  drilling  done  in  1886-7  are  thus  seen  to  have  dis- 
closed two  important  conditions  of  production,  one  pertaining  to  the 
chemicil  composition  of  the  Trenton  limestone  and  the  other  pertaining 
to  its  relative  depth  in  each  field  This  knowledge  did  very  much  to 
rationalize  the  work  of  exploration  on  the  part  of  all  who  pobsest-ed 
intelligence  enough  to  make  use  of  it. 

(4)  Another  clew  to  gas  and  oil  production  was  brought  to  light  in 
1887.     It  was  observed  that  all  of  the  gas  production  in  Ohio  and  Indiana 
as  well,  was  derived  from  territory  in  which  the  Niagara  liuaestonn  consti- 
tutes the  surface  rock;  while  the  oil,  on  the  other  hand,  was  obtained 
from  territory  in  which  the  Lower  Helderberg  limestone  constitutes  the 
surface  rock.     The  explanation  of  this  interesting  line  ot  faces  speedily 
became  apparent.     In  the  order  of  deposition  the  Niagara  limestone  be- 
longs below  the  Lower  Helderberg.     It  has  a  total  thickness  ol  time  hun- 
dred to  four  hundred  feet  against  a  thickness  of  lour  hundred  to  six  hun- 
dred feet  of  ^the  latter  formation.    In  both  States  the  surface  of  the  country 
is  approximately  level  for  large  consecutive  areas,  and  hence  it  resulted 
that  wherever  the  lower-lying  Niagara  limestone  made  the  surfac- ,  the 
Trenton  limestone  must  lie  at  a  higher  elevation  than  where  the  Lower 
Helderberg  comes  to  the  surface.     The  topography  of  the  Trenton  lime- 
stone, in  other  words,  was  found  to  be  clearly  indicated  by  the  surface 
geology.     The  later  facts  have  brought  in  a  few  exceptions  to  this  genera- 
lization.    The  Gibsonburg  field,  for  example  is  occupied  by  the  Niagara 
limestone  as  a  suiface  rock,  but  it  produces  mainly  oil.     The  explanation 
is  that  a  considerable  thickening  of  the  shale  takes  place  in  this  direction, 
as  is  shown  in  the  records  of  the  wells.     The  Upper  Sandusky  field  also 
began  as  a  gas  field,  though  its  surface  rocks  are  Lower  Helderberg,  but 
the  gas  was  soon  superseded  by  oil.     In  Indiana  there  are  some  notable 
departures  from  the  lines  here  indicated,  but  it  is  still  true  that  the  heart 
of  the  gas  field  there  agrees  exactly  with  the  generalization  above  given. 

(5)  Still  another  character  of  the  new  fields  was  made   manifest 


THE   TRENTON    LIMESTONE.  1 09 

during  these  early  explorations,  but  it  is  one  which  the  driller  and  pros- 
pector found  it  hard  to  accept  and  recognize.  It  is  this,  viz.,  the  Dew  gas 
and  oil  fields  are  not  confined  to  definite  axes  of  elevation,  but  they 
rather  expand  after  the  continental  type  of  uplift,  in  flat  lying  areas  of 
scores,  hundreds,  or,  as  is  the  case  in  Indiana,  of  thousands  of  square  miles 
in  extent.  These  areas  have  in  some  cases  sharp  boundaries,  on  one  side 
at  least,  and  in  all  of  them  there  is  a  prevailing  direction  for  the  very 
slight  descent  of  one  to  ten  feet  to  the  mi'e  by  which  they  are  character- 
ized. In  Ohio,  this  prevailing  dip  is  to  the  northward,  or  in  some  cases 
to  the  northeastward;  in  Indiana,  it  is  to  the  northwest. 

The  sharpest  of  the  definite  boundaries  referred  to  in  the  preceding 
paragraph  is  found  in  connection  with  the  Findlay,  North  Baltim<  re  and 
Bowling  Green  gas  fields.  The  Findlay  Break,  as  this  boundary  has  been 
designated,  parses  through  Findlay  a  little  to  the  west  of  north  and  holds 
this  general  direction  as  far,  at  least,  as  the  State  line.  It  is  by  all  means 
the  most  important  structural  line  in  the  oil  and  gas  fields  of  ihe  new 
horizon.  On  the  east  side  of  it  dry  gas  belongs,  often  in  extremely  large 
volume;  on  the  slopes  to  the  westward  the  great  oil  production  of  the 
district  is  found,  while  at  the  foot  of  the  slope  lies  the  salt  water  which 
gives  to  both  oil  and  gas  its  head  of  pressure.  These  facts  are  represented 
in  the  accompanying  diagram,  figure  2.  Three  east  and  west  eections 
taken  ten  to  twelve  miles  apart,  reveal  with  perfect  distinctness  this 
monocline.  It  can  be  traced  still  farther  northward. 

The  structural  lines  of  the  Gibsonburg  and  Oak  Harbor  fields,  in  like 
manner,  bear  to  the  northward;  the  Upper  Sandusky  and  Tiffin  produc- 
tion is  derived  from  a  line  of  elevation  that  heart*  a  few  degrees  to  the  east 
of  north;  the  St.  Mary's  and  Lima  uplift  has  a  distinct  northeasterly 
diiection  as  its  main  feature.  The  Indiana  gas  field,  as  represented  by  a 
recent  map  prepared  by  Dr.  A.  J.  Phinney  and  published  in  the  American 
Manufacturer  in  February,  1890,  is  almost  a  miniature  of  North  America 
in  form  and  proportions.  Dr.  Phinney  estimates  the  area  of  this  gas  field 
to  be  2,500  equare  miles.  Subtracting  a  large  body  from  the  southward 
extension  of  it,  that  possesses  comparatively  little  force  at  the  best  and 
that  is  also  uncertain  in  production,  we  should  still  find  eighteen  hundred 
or  two  thousand  square  miles  in  a  fairly  continuous  territory.  Its  princi- 
pal structural  lines  bear  to  the  west  of  north. 

The  early  history  of  petroleum  production  in  this  country,  as  is  well 
known,  was  confined  to  Western  Pennsylvania,  a  region  which  is  traversed 
by  a  number  ot  low,  parallel  folds  that  represent  the  dying  out  to  the 
westward  of  the  great  anticlinal  series  into  which  the  whole  eastern  border 
of  the  continent  was  bent  during  the  progress  of  the  Appalachian  revolu- 
tion. In  the  oil  regions  these  folds  were  characterized  by  the  same  south- 


HO  GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO. 

westerly  direction  that  marks  the  mountains  themselves.  They  were, 
however,  so  feeble  and  low  that  they  were  easily  masked  by  the  accidents 
of  erosion,  and  they  became  apparent  only  as  extensions  of  the  productive 
oil  fields.  If  the  absolute  levels  of  the  oil  rock  had  been  determined  by 
referring  all  of  them  to  the  height  of  mean  tide,  for  example,  the  law  of 
accumulation  would  certainly  have  come  out  to  view  with  perfect  dis- 
tinctness at  the  very  beginning  of  the  recent  remarkable  history  of 
petroleum.  In  default  of  this,  we  got  nothing  but  "  belt  lines,"  "north, 
forty-five  degrees  east,"  or  "north,  twenty-two  and  one-half  degrees  east," 
according  to  the  fancy  of  the  explorer.  We  all  believe  at  bottom  in  order 
in  nature  and  in  the  presence  of  law,  and  the  modern  mind  does  not  rest 
easy  until  it  obtains  some  clew  to  the  laws  that  afiect  the  special  division 
of  nature  with  which  it  is  individually  concerned.  These  northeast  and 
southwest  lines,  standing  as  they  do  for  real  facts  in  nature  and  admitting 
of  a  thoroughly  rational  explanation,  which  was,  however,  altogether 
missed  in  the  earlier  construction  of  the  facts,  furnished  to  the  driller  his 
only  clew  and  guide.  New  fields  were  discovered  by  what  are  called 
*'  wildcat"  wells;  that  is,  wells  drilled  outside  of  known  or  probable  terri- 
tory. But  as  soon  as  a  successful  well  was  obtained,  the  northeast  lines 
came  at  once  into  play  and  territory  was  thereafter  taken  up  altogether 
on  this  basis.  While  the  deduction  had  in  reality  an  entirely  rational 
foundation,  as  has  already  been  pointed  out,  as  it  was  held  and  used,  it 
was  purely  empirical  and  was  marked  by  all  the  disadvantages  of  such  an 
origin.  So  long  as  the  driller  was  confined  to  Western  Pennsylvania,  and 
the  territory  adjacent  thereto,  he  did  very  well  with  his  northeast  lines. 
In  following  them,  he  was  following  the  great  structural  lines  of  the 
country  on  which  petroleum  accumulation  would  entirely  depend.  He 
could  have  found,  in  fact,  no  better  guide,  though  even  then  there  were 
numerous  qualifications  that  deserved  to  be  recognized.  But  the  Appala- 
chian Mountain  system  does  not  after  all  cover  the  entire  country,  and  as 
soon  as  this  was  left  behind  he  had  no  longer  a  right  to  expect  the  old 
lines  to  be  equally  serviceable  in  guiding  his  explorations.  But  he  was 
not  prepared  to  make  the  necessary  changes.  The  English  coal  miner, 
when  asked  what  was  the  direction  of  the  face  of  his  coal  answered  that 
the  coal  faced  u  two  o'clock  sun,  as  all  the  coal  in  the  world  does  "  So, 
the  Pennsylvania  driller,  if  transported  to  the  Caucasus  or  Rocky  Moun- 
tains would  still  be  trying  to  apply  his  northeast  lines — he  knows  no  other 
guide. 

Working  directly  across  Ohio  from  Pennsylvania,  as  he  did,  it  is  of 
course  natural  that  he  should  have  brought  this  line  with  him.  In 
southeastern  Ohio,  indeed,  he  had  already  found  it  as  distinctly  ap- 
plicable as  in  Pennsylvania,  but  when  he  struck  in  northwestern  Ohio  an 


THE   TRENTON    LIMESTONE.  I  I  I 

oil  and  gas  rock  in  a  lower  Silurian  limestone,  he  ought  to  have  been 
prepared  to  find  all  things  becoming  new.  It  cost  him  a  great  struggle  to 
give  up  sandstone  as  the  sole  and  necessary  reservoir  of  oil,  and  even  to 
this  day  he  persists  in  calling  the  purest  dolomite,  which  will  promptly 
and  wholly  dissolve  in  acid,  the  "  oil  sand."  The  old  law  of  direction 
for  oil  and  gas  accumulation  has  failed  as  thoroughly  as  the  character  of 
the  reservoir  rock.  By  far  the  most  important  single  line  of  structure  in 
the  new  fields  is  found  in  Hancock  and  Wood  counties,  and  this  line 
bears  north,  or  a  few  points  west  of  north.  The  production  of  the 
Findlay  gas  and  oil  field,  the  Van  Buren  gas  field,  the  North  Baltimore 
gas  and  oil  field,  the  Bowling  Green  gas  and  oil  field,  are  all  conditioned 
and  controlled  by  this  factor. 

In  the  Lima  field,  and  a  part  of  the  St.  Mary's  field,  it  is  true  that  a 
northeast  line  comes  into  play  for  a  few  miles,  but  the  area  affected  by 
this  northeast  structure  will  not,  at  the  outside,  exceed  one  hundred 
square  miles,  while  the  new  fields,  taken  together,  comprise  in  Ohio  and 
Indiana,  at  the  very  lowest  calculation,  2,500  square  miles,  and  the  only 
portion  of  the  entire  area  that  can,  by  any  lawful  use  of  the  facts,  be 
counted  as  embodying  a  northeast  line  have  been  already  named.  The 
facts  are  represented  to  the  eye  in  the  accompanying  sketch  map,  on 
which  all  of  the  principal  areas  of  the  gas  and  oil  production,  derived 
from  the  Trenton  limestone,  are  represented  in  proper  relations  to  each 
other.  If  any  northeast  lines  are  found  in  these  tracts,  except  in  the 
single  district  already  named,  they  will  be  creations  of  the  imagination, 
and  rather  poor  ones  at  that.  They  are  likely  to  prove  in  the  future,  as 
they  have  already  done  in  the  past,  in  many  hundreds  of  instances,  a 
delusion  and  a  snare  to  those  who  attempt  to  find  fortune  along  the  belts 
that  they  indicate.  But  it  is  likely  that  the  northeast  line  will  continue 
to  dominate  the  mind  of  the  untrained  driller  and  prospector  for  a  good 
while  to  come.  It  meets  the  urgent  demand  that  is  after  all  so  honorable 
and  hopeful  a  characteristic  of  human  nature,  that  we  shall  have  a 
theory  underlying  our  action.  The  more  intelligent  representatives  of 
the  oil  interest  in  the  new  fields  know  that  the  old  reliance  has  failed 
here,  and  that  it  can  not  be  replaced  by  any  other  as  simple  and  com- 
prehensive as  the  "forty-five  degree  line"  of  Pennsylvania. 

The  points  that  can  be  used  in  intelligent  direction  of  exploration 
are  those  already  emphasized,  viz.,  the  facts  pertaining  to  the  composition 
of  the  Trenton  limestone,  and  the  facts  pertaining  to  its  relative  elevation. 
The  data  for  both  must  first  be  obtained  from  the  point  of  the  drill,  it  is 
true,  but  when  obtained  in  any  locality  they  often  give  some  chance  for 
forecast  in  advance  of  the  drill.  A  prominent  structural  feature,  like  the 
Findlay  breakrcan  also  be  turned  to  the  best  of  account  in  the  location 


1 12  GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO. 

of  gas  and  oil  territory  whenever  it  occurs ;  but  of  such  factors  there  are 
but  few. 

In  the  review  that  is  to  follow  the  several  gas  fields  will  be  described 
in  the  general  order  of  their  discovery  and  development.  The  oil  fields 
will  be  considered  in  a  separate  section.  The  present  review,  therefore, 
must  include  the  last  two  to  three  years. 

SECTION  I. 

GAS  PKODUCTION  OF  THE  TRENTON  LIMESTONE,  1888  TO  1890. 
(A)     HANCOCK  COUNTY. 

This  county  still  occupies  the  most  prominent  place,  all  things 
considered,  in  the  new  gas  production  of  northwestern  Ohio.  Of 
the  eighteen  townships  of  the  county  dry  gas  has  been  produced  in 
the  eight  named  herewith,  viz.,  Findlay,  Marion,  Portage,  Allen,  Cass, 
Washington,  Jackson  and  Eagle.  Portage  and  Eagle  townships  both 
have  small  gas  areas  and  scarcely  deserve  to  be  counted  in  this  list,  and 
though  Jackson  has  furnished  several  large  wells,  none  of  them  has 
proved  to  have  staying  quality,  and  it  is  hardly  proper  to  count  any 
longer  this  township  as  available  for  the  supply  of  pipe  lines  or  for  any 
large  and  constant  use  Weak  production  of  dry  gas  has  also  been  ob- 
tained in  one  or  two  other  townships,  while  gas  assDciated  with  oil  has 
been  found  in  the  townships  that  constitute  the  important  oil  field  of  the 
county.  There  are  but  four  or  five  of  these  eighteen  townships  that  have 
failed  to  disclose  one  or  other  form  of  this  bituminous  wealth  which  has 
bren  so  surprisingly  added  to  the  resources  of  this  favored  county  during 
the  last  six  years.  Findlay  township,  which  is  now  embraced  entirely 
within  the  city  limits  of  Findlay,  no  longer  holds  the  first  place 
in  the  gas  production  of  the  county.  In  this  respect,  indeed,  it  has  lost 
most  of  its  importance;  but  in  the  history  of  this  production  it  will 
always  be  the  center  of  interest.  At  the  present  time  Allen  township 
takes  the  first  rank,  and  after  it  come  in  the  order  named,  Cass,  Washing- 
ton and  Marion.  The  principal  developments,  including  the  new  features 
of  the  last  two  year?,  in  each  of  these  subdivisions,  will  be  here  noted. 

(1)  Findlay. — As  will  be  remembered,  gas  was  discovered  in  Findlay 
in  November,  1884.  The  use  of  it  was  begun  in  1885,  but  no  great  pro- 
gress was  made  until  1886,  beyond  the  furnishing  of  a  domestic  supply 
for  the  residences  of  the  city.  During  this  year  glass  factories,  iron  and 
steel  mills,  and  various  other  manufacturing  enterprises  were  established. 
In  the  winter  of  1886  and  the  spring  of  1887  a  period  of  great  speculative 
ex<iteruent  prevailed.  Foreign  capital  in  large  amount  was  brought  in 
and  invested  in  lands,  buildings,  manufacturing  plants,  street  improve- 


THE   TRENTON    LIMESTONE.  IIJ 

ments,  water  works  and  the  like.  Prices  of  real  estate  were,  for  a  time, 
pushed  to  extravagant  figures,  but  building  sites  and  practically  free  gas 
continued  to  be  offered  to  all  manufacturers  that  were  purposing  location. 
As  was  to  be  expected,  the  attractions  that  were  thus  held  out  drew  into 
Findlay  several  enterprises  that  were  presently  found  to  be  financially 
weak.  In  order  to  establish  themselves  they  needed  something  more 
than  free  land  and  free  gas.  Some  of  them  were  aided  and  reinforced  by 
Findlay  capitalists,  but  others  collapsed  after  struggles  variously  pro- 
tracted. A  large  majority  of  the  establishments  located  here,  however, 
have  proved  vigorous  and  successful  from  the  start.  The  population  of 
the  town  has  increased  to  25,000.  Ten  miles  or  more  of  street  railroads 
are  in  successful  operation.  The  city  water-works  on  which  a  hundred 
thousand  dollars  has  been  expended,  are  already  rendering  invaluable 
service  to  the  health  and  comfort  of  the  town.  Sewers  are  to  be  con- 
structed and  street  paving  on  the  large  scale  is  already  begun. 

The  great  extension  of  the  corporation  limits  of  the  city  that  took 
place  in  1887,  the  location  of  factories  far  out  from  the  old  centers,  and 
the  building  up  of  residences  around  the  new  factories,  necessitated  an 
equal  extension  of  the  city  gas  lines.  The  trustees  pushed  forward  their 
work,  connecting,  from  time  to  time,  extensive  manufacturing  plants 
with  their  belt  line,  enforcing  no  economy  in  the  use  of  the  gas,  and 
scarcely  suggesting  such  economy  to  consumers.  A  monstrous  waste  was 
going  on  in  almost  every  direction.  The  illumination  of  the  city  was 
provided  for  by  street  torches,  consuming  50  to  200  feet  per  hour.  Few 
of  them  were  extinguished  in  the  day  time.  It  is  speaking  quite  within 
the  limits  to  charge  upon  this  single  source  of  waste  the  useless  destruc- 
tion of  at  least  15,000,000  feet  of  gas  per  month  during  at  least  a  part  of 
this  year. 

Few  new  wells  were  drilled  and  those  that  were  drilled  were  located 
on  city  lots  at  a  short  remove  from  the  older  ones.  None  of  them  made 
very  important  additions  to  the  gas  supply.  The  trustees,  in  fact,  pro- 
ceeded on  the  assumption  that  a  few  square  miles  underneath  the  center 
of  Findlay  were  an  adequate  source  of  fuel  and  power  for  all  the  uses 
that  could  possibly  be  accumulated  on  the  surface,  and  that  the  Karg  well, 
which  had  become  the  great  reliance  of  the  city  line,  could  reasonably 
enough  be  expected  to  continue  for  an  indefinite  time  to  come  its  astonish- 
ing out-put. 

Failure  of  Gas  in  Findlay. 

The  results  of  a  policy  based  upon  such  expectation  were,  of  course 
bound  to  be  disastrous.     As  the  winter  of  1888  and  1889  set  in,  and 
8        G. 


114  GEOLOGY    OF   OHIO. 

heavier  drafts  on  the  pipe  line  were  made  necessary,  complaints  began  to 
be  heard  in  many  quarters  of  want  of  gas.  The  glass  factories  and  iron 
mills  were  obliged  to  shut  down  for  a  part  of  each  day.  In  the  outskirts 
-of  the  town  the  pressure  was  so  much  reduced  that  cooking  stoves  and 
heating  stoves  alike  failed  to  do  their  work.  One  of  the  city  schools  was 
temporarily  closed  because  the  building  could  not  be  properly  warmed. 
Occasionally  the  supply  of  gas  was  entirely  cut  off  and  the  cause  was 
found  to  be  the  filling  of  the  pipes  with  salt  water,  and  in  some  cases  the 
stoppage  proved  to  be  due  to  the  freezing  of  the  water  in  the  pipes.  The 
magnitude  of  the  failure  was,  however,  for  the  first  time  made  fully  ap- 
parent when  this  flood  of  salt  water  was  traced  to  the  Karg  well.  This 
fact  was  not  generally  known  at  the  time,  but  those  that  learned  it  saw  at 
last  that  the'Findlay  field  was  like  all  other  gas  fields,  a  reservoir  of  stored 
power  and  that  it  not  only  could  be  but  that  it  had  already  been  practi- 
cally exhausted.  The  Karg  well  was  completed  in  January,  1886.  For 
several  months  in  its  early  history,  it  had  poured  out  into  the  air  its  vast 
volume  unrestrained.  A  calculation  made  in  1887  showed  that  this  one 
well  had  been  allowed  to  waste  at  the  very  lowest  computation  1,500,000,- 
000  feet  of  gas,  and  after  it  was  brought  into  the  city  line  it  was,  especially 
for  the  last  year,  run  wide  open,  or  without  any  back  pressure  whatever. 
Its  life  under  such  treatment  was  unusually  prolonged,  reaching  nearly 
three  years.  When  first  struck  it  had  more  than  fifty  feet  in  thickness  of 
dry  gas  rock  to  draw  upon,  but  the  salt  water  flood  that  lay  below,  carry- 
ing a  thin  layer  of  oil  upon  its  surface,  was  steadily  rising  in  the  reservoir 
as  the  highly  compressed  gas  which  resisted  its  advance  was  allowed  to 
find  egress  through  the 'well.  Every  step  of  its  ascent  was  permanent; 
each  foot  of  gas  allowed  to  blow  or  burn  left  the  volume  within  the  reser- 
voir so  much  less. 

In  this  alarming  juncture,  the  gas  trustees  turned  at  once  to  the 
nearest  available  sources  of  supply.  The  Jones  well,  which  had  been 
drilled  in  the  summer  of  1886,  but  which  bad  never  been  drawn  upon, 
was  bought  by  the  trustees.  Its  original  volume  was  1,100,000  feet  per 
day,  and  it  was  confidently  supposed  that  its  gas  was  held  securely  in 
store  for  emergencies.  When  opened,  however,  it  was  at  once  seen  that 
the  well  had  shared  the  fortunes  of  the  field  and  that  its  pressure  and 
volume  had  been  reduced  as  much  as  if  it  had  been  drawn  upon  directly. 
The  Ballard  well,  of  Jackson  township,  the  measured  volume  of  which 
had  been  found  to  be  between  five  and  six  million  feet  daily,  was  also 
brought  into  use.  The  farm  upon  which  the  well  was  drilled  was  pur- 
chased by  the  trustees  at  a  large  figure,  and  connections  were  immediately 
made  from  the  well  to  the  city  line.  To  meet  the  demand  that  at  present 
.existed,  this  well  also  was  run  wide  open,  and  its  term  of  service  proved 


THE   TRENTON    LIMESTONE.  115 

on  this  account  very  short.  In  the  course  of  a  few  weeks,  it  began  to  fill 
the  line  with  salt  water,  which  renewed  the  trouble  in  the  service  pipes 
that  had  been  already  experienced  and  continued  the  disastrous  interrup- 
tions that  had  begun. 

The  winter  passed  in  this  way,  checking  and  sobering  the  growth  of 
the  city.  At  the  time  when  the  shortage  began,  there  were  many  manu- 
facturers at  the  doors,  negotiating  for  some  share  in  the  wonderful  advan- 
tages which  Findlay  had  thus  far  been  able  to  offer  to  all  comers.  They 
had  been  easily  and  naturally  led  to  adopt  the  views  which  they  iound 
prevalent  in  Findlay,  to  the  effect  that  the  supply  was  a  perennial  one, 
that  the  gas  wells,  if  not  really  growing  more  productive  all  the  time, 
were  certainly  holding  their  own  in  all  respects.  But  the  disastrous 
experience  of  the  winter  changed  all  this.  It  is  popularly  said  to  have 
damaged  Findlay  to  the  extent  of  millions  of  dollars.  This  statement 
can  be  true  only  in  the  eense  that  many  large  establishments  would  have 
been  added  to  Findlay  during  the  next  season  if  it  had  not  been  for  this 
failure  in  the  gas  supply.  But,  in  reality,  instead  of  having  been  a  source  of 
damage,  it  has  been  a  real  service  to  the  city.  Enough  manufacturing 
enterprises  had  already  been  brought  in,  and  the  true  interests  of  the  town 
would  be  best  served  by  giving  to  those  already  on  the  ground  a  reason- 
able term  of  life  in  the  way  of  gas  supply.  Nothing  short  of  such  an 
experience  as  has  been  recorded  would  have  convinced  the  most  of  the 
citizens  of  the  possibility  of  the  exhaustion  of  their  gas  reservoir.  It  has 
been  the  fashion  in  Findlay  to  put  the  blame  of  the  great  failure  upon 
the  Board  of  Gas  Trustees.  They  are  held  responsible  for  the  fact  that 
when  the  city  wells  were  found  to  be  practically  exhausted  they  had  no 
new  territory  leased  and  no  outside  wells  drilled  and  ready  to  be  connected 
with  their  lines  of  supply.  But  these  charges  are  not  altogether  just. 
The  most  that  can  be  said  ia  that  the  trustees  were  not  very  much  in 
advance  of  the  most  of  the  people  whom  they  represented.  There  were  a 
few  citizens,  it  is  true,  that  had  foreseen  the  danger  and  had  sought  to 
guard  against  it.  During  the  preceding  year  it  had  been  suggested  to  the 
trustees  by  the  city  council  that  measures  should  be  taken  to  secure  more 
territory  outside  of  the  corporation  lines.  Good  gas  land  could  have  been 
obtained  at  this  time  at  very  low  rentals,  but  the  trustees  did  not  appre- 
ciate the  necessity  for  action,  and  it  is  quite  likely  that  if  they  had  fol- 
lowed this  advice  their  action  would  have  brought  down  upon  them  the 
decided  disapprobation  of  the  citizens  generally,  who  would  have  seen  no 
necessity  for  using  public  money  in  this  way.  They  were  satisfied  "  to  let 
well  enough  alone." 

The  city  council,  in  this  emergency,  took  the  lead  and  placed  at  the 
service  of  the  trustees  an  agent  to  represent  them  in  leasing  prospective 


Il6  GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO. 

gas  lands  in  the  adjoining  townships.  During  the  first  half  of  1889,  nearly 
eight  thousand  acres  of  land  in  Allen,  Cass  and  Marion  townships  were 
taken  by  the  trustees  for  the  ultimate  service  of  the  city  line.  But  when 
Findlay  appeared  in  this  new  capacity,  there  were  other  interests  also 
represented  in  the  field.  The  Northwestern  Ohio  Natural  Gas  Company 
and  the  Toledo  gas  trustees  established  a  sharp  competition  with  the 
Findlay  interest  for  what  were  counted  the  most  desirable  lands,  and  such 
were  readily  taken  up  at  six,  eight  and  ten  dollars  per  acre  annual  rental, 
and  in  some  instances  an  annual  rental  of  twenty  dollars  was  paid.  The 
present  gas  leases  impose  upon  the  city  an  annual  burden  of  fifty  to  sixty 
thousand  dollars.  It  is  costing  the  city  much  more  than  this,  however, 
to  bring  back  from  distant  fields  a  fraction  of  the  amount  of  gas  which 
was  so  recklessly  wasted  in  the  first  three  years  of  its  use.  During  1889, 
many  wells  were  drilled  in  the  new  territory.  The  pipe  lines  were  con- 
nected with  them  and  the  city  has  since  enjoyed  a  full  supply  as  it  did 
before  the  collapse  of  the  home  field.  In  speaking  thus  of  the  Findlay 
field,  it  is  not  to  be  understood  that  there  is  a  complete  exhaustion  of  its 
wells.  Gas  fields  do  not  become  extinct  in  this  way.  But  so  far  as  can 
be  learned,  there  is  not  one  of  the  wells  drilled  within  two  miles  of  the 
center  of  the  corporation  that  has  not  been  overrun  to  some  extent  with 
oil  or  water,  or  both.  In  short,  the  Findlay  wells,  when  brought  into 
service,  no  longer,  with  very  few  exceptions,  produce  dry  gas.  In  the 
great  majority  of  them,  it  requires  all  the  rock  pressure  which  they  still 
possess  to  keep  back  the  salt  water.  The  gas  is  dry  only  when  the  wells 
are  shut  in. 

Rock  Pressure  of  Findlay  Gas. 

It  has  been  somewhat  difficult  to  ascertain  the  exact  facts  as  to  the  rock 
pressure  of  the  field  from  year  to  year,  but  so  far  as  known,  the  figures  are 
as  follows :  The  original  rock  pressure  of  the  Pioneer  well  was  reported 
by  W.  M.  Martin,  Esq.,  at  450  pounds,  but  this  extreme  figure  was  soon 
lost.  During  1886,  the  pressure  rose  but  little,  if  any,  above  400  pounds 
at  any  time.  During  1887,  the  fall  was  very  gradual,  the  gauges  marking 
370  and  380  pounds  when  the  wells  were  closed.  The  figures  for  1888 
were  not  ascertained  further  than  that  they  showed  a  steady  decline.  In 
May,  1889,  the  pressure  had  fallen  to  250  pounds  in  independent  wells, 
and  in  August  of  the  same  year  it  did  not  exceed  200  pounds.  The  wells 
in  the  city  line  fell  as  low  as  170  pounds  at  this  time.  This  amount,  as 
has  been  already  intimated,  is  not  enough  to  keep  back  the  ealt  water.  To 
the  northward  a  similar  gradual  reduction  was  extending.  In  May,  1889, 
when  the  wells  within  the  city  proper  marked  250  pounds,  the  extreme 
northern  wells  of  the  township  stood  at  about  350  pounds.  The  Heck 


THE   TRENTON    LIMESTONE.  117 

well  showed  about  300  pounds,  its  position  being  intermediate.    These 
facts  can  be  best  appreciated  when  they  are  arranged  in  tabular  statement: 

Eock  pressure  in  Findlay,  1885,  origimal,  450  Ibs. 

"  "  1886, 400  Ibs. 

"  "  1887,  August,    360-380  Ibs. 

"  "  1889,  May  1st,  250  Ibs. 

"  "  1890,  May  1st,  170-200  Ibs. 

The  Tippecanoe  Well. 

During  the  last  days  of  1888,  just  while  this  alarming  failure  of  the 
gas  supply  was  becoming  manifest,  a  larger  well  than  any  yet  drilled  in 
the  field  was  struck  two  and  a  half  miles  north  of  the  court-house.  It 
was]  located  on  a  town  lot  and  when  the  ordinary  depth  for  gas  was 
reached^by  the  drill,  the  well  made  a  very  poor  showing.  The  well  drilled 
for  Bell  Bros',  pottery,  eighty  rods  north  of  the  location  now  to  be  de- 
scribed, by  Findlay  parties  who  were  interested  in  this  company  had 
found  a  light  flow  of  gas  at  forty  feet  in  the  Trenton  limestone.  The  con- 
tractor wished  to  stop  at  this  point  for  fear  of  salt  water,  but  he  was 
obliged  to  go  on  until  at  a  depth  of  sixty- five  feet,  a  fine  gas  flow  was 
struck  and  the  well  was  considered  lully  equal  to  all  demands.  Drilling 
was  accordingly  continued  in  the  new  well  to  the  same  unusual  depth, 
and  at  about  seventy  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  Trenton  limestone  the 
same  large  gas  vein  was  struck ;  but  to  make  the  well  as  productive  as 
possible,  the  effect  of  a  torpedo  was  added.  The  result  of  the  shot  was  the 
unlocking  of  the  most  monstrous  volume  of  gas  that  had  been  seen  up  to 
this  time  in  the  State.  The  open  pressure  of  the  well  for  the  first  day 
after  the  explosion  of  the  torpedo  was  thirty-eight  pounds ;  on  the  second 
day,  eighteen  pounds;  on  the  third  day,  eleven  pounds.  These  figures 
stand  respectively  for  32,000,000,  24,000,000  and  19,000,000  cubic  feet  of 
gas  per  day.  This  remarkable  result  revived  momentarily  the  courage  of 
many,  and  great  use  was  made  of  the  fact  that  the  greatest  well  in  the  field 
had  been  struck  two  years  after  the  Karg  well,  and  while  the  latter  was 
collapsing  from  being  overworked.  The  unwarranted  conclusion  that 
Findlay  had  just  as  much  gas  as  ever  was  widely  disseminated  through 
the  usual  channels  of  information  and  misinformation  on  this  subject. 
The  owners  of  the  well  offered  it  to  the  gas  trustees,  who  were  in  urgent 
need  of  gas  for  their  lines ;  the  price  at  which  it  was  offered,  as  is  under- 
stood, was  ten  thousand  dollars.  The  trustees  refused  to  purchase,  but 
proceeded  forthwith  to  avail  themselves,  if  possible,  of  the  new  supply  of 
gas.  They  purchased  a  lot  adjoining  the  great  well  and  proceeded  with 
all  possible  dispatch  to  drill  within  sixty  feet  of  it.  The  second  well 
was  a  complete  failure,  even  after  being  heavily  torpedoed.  The  attempt 


Il8  GEOLOGY     OF    OHIO. 

to  get  possession  of  this  great  gas  vein  without  paying  for  it  attracted 
a  good  deal  of  attention  and  to  many  of  the  citizens  themselves,  much  as 
they  desired  to  see  the  gas  supply  replenished,  the  result  was  not 
unwelcome.  The  great  well  proved,  however,  short-lived  and  of  no  value. 

The  Tippecanoe  well,  as  the  great  well  was  named,  is  thought  to  have 
struck  a  crevice  in  the  rock.  As  has  been  said  upon  a  preceding  page, 
crevices  do  not  play  as  important  a  part  in  modern  theories  of  gas  and  oil 
production  as  they  once  did,  but  there  is  nothing  to  render  improbable 
their  occasional  occurrence  in  this  particular  district.  The  Tippecanoe 
well  is  situated  near  the  line  of  the  Findlay  monocline  and  notable  frac- 
tures could  occasion  no  surprise  in  strata  that  are  bent  downward  150  feet 
in  one-fourth  of  a  mile. 

The  Findlay  city  corporation  is  now  co-extensive  with  the  township, 
as  will  be  remembered,  embracing  twenty-four  square  miles.  The  num- 
ber of  wells  drilled  within  the  township  that  deserve,  or  that  have  de- 
served at  any  time,  to  be  called  gas  wells  is  not  far  from  forty.  Some  of 
them  were  early  overrun  with  oil  and  water.  Some  of  them  had  but 
small  volume  at  first  and  fell  away  very  soon  to  such  insignificant  propor- 
tions that  they  were  dropped  out  of  use  and  account  altogether.  The  rise 
of  the  level  of  oil  and  water  in  the  Trenton  limestone  has  brought  it  about 
that  a  great  deal  of  land  that  was  originally  counted  dry  gas  territory  has 
now  been  invaded  by  oil  in  greater  or  less  amount.  This  state  of  tbings 
is  found  near  the  margin  of  the  Findlay  break.  Salt  water  has  also 
gained  upon  the  oil  in  all  parts  of  the  township  where  the  Trenton  lime- 
stone was  found  productive  at  a  low  elevation  or  near  the  line  of  500  feet 
below  tide.  In  the  gas  field  proper,  some  wells  are  first  invaded  by  oil 
and  others  by  water  as  they  are  exhausted  of  gas.  The  former  causes  the 
most  dangerous  interruption  of  the  pipes,  being  carried  along  in  the 
system  of  distribution  until  the  smaller  lines  are  reached  and  in  which  it 
remains  to  clog  the  movements  of  the  gas.  In  severe  winter  weather, 
however,  the  salt  water  is  very  dangerous.  The  same  state  of  things  pre- 
vails all  along  the  boundary  of  the  oil  and  gas  territory,  the  former  con- 
stantly gaining  upon  the  latter.  Some  gas  wells  of  old  time  are  now  pro- 
ducing oil  on  a  considerable  scale. 

In  the  northern  part  of  the  township  oil  makes  the  great  obstruction. 
The  Heck  well,  for  example,  which  originally  produced  eight  million  feet 
of  dry  gas  per  day  has  been  overrun  with  oil  to  such  a  degree  that  the 
remnant  of  its  gas  can  scarcely  be  utilized.  It  has  never  been  subjected 
to  a  very  heavy  draught.  For  one  year  it  carried  the  Hirsh  &  Ely  Glass 
Works  and  the  wire  nail  works.  The  glass  factories  in  the  northwestern 
part  of  the  town  were  then  attached,  but  it  broke  down  under  this  duty 
in  less  than  a  year.  Its  gas  is  no  longer  suitable  for  use  in  glass  works. 


THE  TRENTON  LIMESTONE.  119 

Utilization  of  Findlay  Gas. 

But  little  needs  to  be  added  to  the  account  given  in  Vol.  VI,  as  to 
the  utilization  of  gas  in  Findlay.  Glass  making  is  still  the  ruling  in- 
dustry, and  Findlay  has  become  one  of  the  important  centers  of  this 
interest  in  the  country.  Several  new  works  have  been  added  to  the^list 
before  published.  The  present  enumeration  is  as  follows : 

WINDOW  GLASS. 

Findlay  Window  Glass  Co 18  pots. 

Ohio  Window  Glass  Co 10    " 

West  Park  Glass  Co 10    " 

Buckeye  Window  Glass  Co «. 10     " 

United  Glass  Co...,  10    " 


Total .' 58    " 

TABLE  WARE,  GOBLETS,  CHIMNEYS,  ETC. 

Dalzell  Glass  Co 33  pots, 

and  two  tanks  of  12  and  5  pot  capacity. 

Bellaire  Goblet  Works '. 30 

Globe  Chimney  Works 16 

Model  Flint  Glass  Co 14 

Columbia  Glass  Co 13 

Lip pincott  Glass  Co 10 

Findlay  Bottle  Works 8 

Total '. 124    " 

The  system  upon  which  the  industry  has  been  established  in  the  new 
fields  is  essentially  a  vicious  one.  The  towns  that  discovered  or  that  got 
possession  of  natural  gas  entered  into  an  eager  competition  with  each 
other  in  securing  for  themselves  the  location  among  them  6f  any  glass 
manufacturers  who  stood  ready  to  transfer  their  business  to  the  new  fuel 
supply.  Practically  free  gas  was  at  the  manufacturer's  command  in  any 
of  these  towns,  and  the  selection  generally  turned  on  the  question  of  how 
much  besides  could  be  secured  from  them.  No  question  whatever,  as  a 
rule,  was  raised  by  the  towns  as  to  the  amount  of  gas  that  would  be  re- 
quired by  the  factory.  Contracts  to  supply  gas  free,  or  at  a  nominal  rate, 
were  generally  entered  into  on  the  part  of  the  towns  or  the  corporations 
controlling  the  gas,  for  three  to  five  years.  In  rare  exceptions  the  ap- 
proximate amount  to  be  used  was  specified.  No  necessity  for  an  econom- 
ical use  was  recognized  on  either  side  for  some  time.  But  when  pressure 
began  to  fall  in  the  lines,  or  when  the  constant  demand' for  new  wells  be- 
came burdensome  upon  the  gas  companies,  the  question  naturally  arose 
as  to  whether  proper  economy  was  being' observed  on  the  part  of  the  con- 
sumers. In  many  cases  wells  were  drilled  especially  for  the  glass  companies, 
the  original  production  of  which  would  many  times  exceed  any  possible 


I2O  GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO. 

use  that  they  could  make  of  it,  and  this  state  of  things  naturally  tended 
in  the  same  way  to  extravagant  or,  at  least,  careless  use.  Any  question, 
or  even  any  suggestion  as  to  economy  during  the  first  year  or  two  of  this 
experience  seemed  like  an  impertinence;  and  many  men,  intelligent  upon 
other  subjects,  could  be  found  who  would  insist  that  their  wells  were 
growing  stronger  all  the  time. 

But  as  sounder  views  slowly  gained  access  to  the  minds  of  those 
specially  interested,  and  as  it  at  length  became  plain  to  even  the  dullest 
observers  that  the  early  condition  of  the  gas  supply  could  not  possibly  be 
maintained  for  a  period  of  many  years,  efforts  to  reduce  waste  and  es- 
tablish economy  began  to  be  made  on  every  side,  and  often  the  consumer 
joined  with  the  gas  companies  or  even  took  the  initiative  in  the  serious 
attempt  to  make  this  invaluable  supply  go  as  far  as  possible. 

In  the  reckless  and  wanton  waste  of  gas  during  the  period  that  has 
thus  far  passed  since  its  discovery,  and  in  unsound  and  demoralizing 
business  methods  that  have  become  general  in  connection  with  its  intro- 
duction, in  the  giving  of  free  gas  and  public  and  private  contributions  to 
intending  manufactories,  Findlay  has  had  a  bad  pre-eminence,  not  from 
any  worse  counsels  or  conditions  than  its  neighbors,  but  simply  because 
the  new  fuel  was  discovered  here  in  vastly  larger  quantity  than  any  other 
town  has  found.  It  is  a  pleasure  to  record  that  at  this  late  day,  after 
having  sustained  an  immense  and  irreparable  loss,  much  of  which  was 
entirely  unnecessary,  Findlay  is  now  doing  something  to  establish  an 
intelligent  and  economical  administration  of  the  remnant  which  still 
remains  from  its  splendid  original  endowment.  It  is  adopting  a  system 
of  measuring  the  amounts  of  gas  used  by  all  of  its  leading  consumers, 
and  it  is  proceeding,  so  far  as  its  contracts  will  allow,  to  base  its  charges 
upon  the  amount  consumed.  The  recognition  of  this  simple  axiomatic 
business  principle,  which  one  might  expect  would  be  adopted  without 
a  question  in  all  enterprises  of  this  sort,  is  all  that  is  needed  to  bring 
about  the  reformation  so  greatly  to  be  desired  throughout  the  entire 
natural  gas  field.  At  least  there  is  but  one  other  element  that  requires  to 
be  added  and  that  is,  the  fixing  of  a  proper  price  upon  the  gas.  With  a 
rate  high  enough  to  make  economy  an  object,  and  with  the  knowledge 
that  every  foot  consumed  is  to  be  paid  for,  a  proper  motive  for  economy 
will  at  least  be  brought  to  bear  on  all  consumers.  It  is  greatly  to  be 
regretted  that  the  unmistakable  teachings  of  science  and  common  sense 
should  have  been  ignored  until  incipient  exhaustion  had  set  its  mark 
upon  the  field.  These  general  remarks  bear  upon  all  the  uses  of  natural 
gas  and  not  solely  upon  that  which  is  consumed  in  glass  manufacture. 

The  principal  iron  working  establishments  of  Findlay  consist  of  the 
Briggs  Iron  Works,  the  Salem  Wire  Nail  Works,  the  Findlay  Iron  and 


PLATE     III. 


3^ 


THE   TRENTON    LIMESTONE.  121 

Steel  Works,  also  known  as  the  Wetherell  Works,  and  the  Chain  Works 
of  the  west  side. 

The  Briggs  Iron  Works  are  much  the  most  extensive  of  this  list. 
Originally  consisting  of  the  Briggs  Tool  Works  alone,  there  have  been 
added  to  the  plant  from  time  to  time  a  ten-inch  rolling-mill,  a  twenty- 
inch  rolling-mill  «and  a  chain  mill.  The  consumption  of  gas,  measured 
on  a  day  when  the  ten  inch  mill  was  idle  for  repairs,  was  found  to  be 
167,000  feet  per  hour.  Making  a  proportional  addition  for  the  ten-inch 
mill,  the  consumption  would  be  not  less  than  190,000  cubic  feet  per  hour. 
The  company  is  preparing  to  add  an  eight-inch  mill  to  its  present  equip- 
ment. Such  an  addition  would  bring  its  total  daily  consumption  to 
5,000,000  feet. 

Among  the  other  establishments  that  are  dependent  on  the  Findlay 
gas  plant  for  fuel  and  power  there  may  be  named  the  following : 

The  Findlay  Water- Works,  the  Electric  Light  Works,  eight  machine- 
shops  and  foundries,  seven  boiler  shops,  fifteen  planing-mills,  three 
brick  yards,  four  lime- kilns,  seven  stone  quarries,  one  clay  pot  factory, 
one  target  works.  In  addition  to  these  larger  uses  of  gas  in  manufactur- 
ing, the  city  line  supplies  with  fuel  7,600  stoves  and  maintains  about 
10,000  residence  lights.  Laundry  stoves,  bakeries,  restaurant  ranges, 
furnaces  and  the  like,  still  further  increase  the  consumption.  The  corpo- 
ration owns  thirty- three  wells  in  the  township,  all  of  which  are  with- 
drawn from  use  at  the  present  time.  Its  entire  dependence  is  now  on 
Allen,  Cass  and  Marion  townships,  in  which  it  owns  twenty- six  wells, 
twenty  of  which  the  corporation  drilled  and  six  of  which  it  bought.  It 
holds  leases  on  7,655  acres  in  these  townships,  the  annual  rentals  on 
which  exceed  $50,000.  It  has  expended  in  its  gas  plant  nearly  $500,000, 
and  its  present  liabilities  on  this  account  are  nearly  $400,000. 

The  rates  for  domestic  use  from  November  1,  1888,  were  as  follows : 
Fifty  cents  per  month  for  each  stove,  if  paid  before  the  10th  of  the 
month.  For  lights  a  rate  of  five  cents  per  jet  was  established,  with 
numerous  discounts  as  the  number  of  lights  in  a  residence  was  increased. 
From  October  1,  1889,  the  rates  were  practically  doubled,  stoves  now 
being  charged  $1  per  month.  A  new  schedule  will  soon  be  published,  in 
which  a  further  advance  of  rates  is  expected. 

For  the  glass  furnaces  and  other  factories,  various  rates  are  charged, 
depending  on  the  special  contracts  obtained  by  each  at  the  time  of  its 
location.  One  glass  factory,  for  example,  pays  $3.00  per  annum  for  each 
pot,  while  another  may  pay  as  high  as  $10.00  per  pot.  In  either  case, 
and  in  all  cases,  however,  the  charges  for  gas  are  merely  nominal.  They 
have  no  relation  whatever  to  the  value  of  the  fuel. 


122  GEOLOGY     OF     OHIO. 

The  Hydraulic  Press  Brick  Works  were  offered  free  gas  by  an  orgarri~ 
zation  known  as  the  Findlay  Board  of  Trade  at  a  time  when  speculation 
ran  highest  in  the  town.  The  Common  Council  in  some  way  guaranteed 
this  claim,  and  when  the  public  supply  fell  short,  two  wells  were  drilled  at 
the  expense  of  the  city  in  North  Findlay,  near  the  works,  to  provide  the 
necessary  fuel.  The  pressure  of  this  part  of  the  field  iiad  already  gone 
down  to  200  pounds  and  the  rock  was  therefore  overrun  with  salt  water 
to  a  considerable  degree,  but  the  gas  is  still  used  successfully  in  burning 
the  brick.  A  third  well,  too  much  overrun  with  salt  water  to  be  longer 
kept  in  the  city  lines,  was  sold  to  the  brick  works  last  year.  The  salt 
water  drops  from  the  pipes  as  the  gas  is  burning  in  the  kilns,  but  so  long 
as  the  flow  is  not  interrupted  no  disadvantage  is  recognized.  These  wells 
in  reality  furnish  one  of  the  most  important  of  the  later  facts  of  the  field. 
The  rock  pressure  has  been  maintained  in  them  at  about  170  pounds  for 
the  last  year  and  a  considerable  amount  of  wet  gas  has  been  turned  to 
good  account.  Of  course  all  the  available  back  pressure  is  left  upon 
them  and  the  more  there  is  of  it  the  better  the  gas  is.  Their  behavior 
warrants  the  expectation  that  a  good  deal  of  value  may  still  be  obtained 
from  the  overflowed  territory.  Wells  behave  differently,  however,  in 
different  parts  of  the  field.  Sometimes  they  are  drowned  out  abruptly 
and  irrevocably  like  the  blowing  out  of  a  lamp,  and  at  other  times  they 
are  slow  in  dying.  In  speaking  thus  of  the  possibilities  of  the  utilization 
of  the  remnant  of  Findlay  gas,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  this  can 
be  continued  only  on  a  very  small  scale.  If  all  the  wells  were  opened 
the  salt  water  would  undoubtedly  make  a  complete  and  permanent  con- 
quest of  the  gas  rock  in  a  very  short  time. 

SUMMARY. 

A  brief  summary  of  the  facts  pertaining  to  the  gas  supply  of  Findlay 
will  be  given  here,  embodying  the  principal  results  that  have  been  already 
stated. 

1.  When  Findlay  gas  was  discovered  in  1885,  the  slope  of  the  Tren- 
ton limestone  that  underlies  the  town  was  occupied  with  dry  gas  for  100 
feet  in  vertical  range.     At  the  present  time,  water  or  oil  or  both  appear 
in  every  well.     In  other  words,  when  a  well  is  at  the  present  time  allowed 
to  flow  without  obstruction,  the  presence  of  salt  water  or  oil  is  always  ap- 
parent in  the  gas  in  such  quantities  as  to  obstruct  or  arrest  the  flow. 
These  facts  are  represented  in  the  accompanying  diagrams.     (Figgure  3.) 

2.  The  original  rock  pressure  of  the  Findlay  field  was  450  pounds  to 
the  square  inch.     It  nowhere  now  rises  above  200  pounds,  except  in  the 
extreme  northern  portion  of  the  township.     In  parts  of  the  central  dis- 


THE    TRENTON    LIMESTONE.  J  23 

trict  the  maximum  pressure  at  the  present  time  does  not  exceed   170 
pounds. 

3.  Of  this  original  pressure  of  450  pounds,  not  more  than  two-thirds 
could  ever  be  properly  counled  available  for  gas  supply.     The  last  third 
and  more  should  have  bee  a  held  in  reserve  to  keep  the  gas  rock  free  from 
water  and  oil.     The  life  of  the  field  would  thus  have  been  considerably 
lengthened  if  this  course  had  been  maintained. 

4.  The  total  consumption  of  gas  in  Findlay,  at  the  present  time,  has 
not  been  absolutely  determined.     The  following  estimate  is  offered  as  an 
approximation  to  the  quantity  used  each  day  : 

Glass  furnaces 10,000,000  cubic  feet. 

Iron  mills 10,000,000          " 

Other  factories 6,000,000 

Household  use 4,000,000          " 

Total : 30,000,000          " 

The  last  named  element  is  estimated  on  the  basis  of  winter  use.  In 
the  summer  this  item  would  be  reduced  to  2,000,000  feet,  or  possibly  less. 
The  glass  furnaces  also  are  closed  for  several  months  in  the  summer  and 
the  consumption  is  correspondingly  lessened  thereby. 

(2)  Allen  Township. — The  great  prospective  value  of  Allen  township 
as  gas  producing  territory  was  recognized  from  the  early  days  of  the  Find- 
lay  field.  The  Findlay  break,  which  has  been  shown  to  be  the  structural 
feature  that  determines  the  value  of  Findlay  proper  as  a  source  of  gas 
and  oil,  was  proved  to  continue  without  interruption  to  the  northward 
and  moreover  a  great  well  had  been  drilled  on  Section  12,  in  the  im- 
mediate vicinity  of  Van  Buren,  in  the  fall  of  1886.  The  Kagy  well, 
which  is  the  one  referred  to  above,  was  described  in  Volume  VI.  Its  pro- 
duction of  gas  was  somewhat  in  excess  of  the  Karg  well  of  Findlay  which, 
up  to  this  time,  had  been  by  far  the  largest  of  the  field. 

At  the  present  time,  Allen  township  shares  with  Bloom  township, 
Wood  county,  the  honors  of  the  gas  producing  territory  of  Ohio.  In 
fact,  the  Trenton  limestone  reaches  in  it  its  highestj  mark  in  this  line,  and 
the  recent  great  wells  of  the  township  leave  even  the  Karg  well  so  far  be- 
hind tbat  if  the  latter  were  discovered  now  it  would  be  commonplace  and 
would  attract  no  particular  attention. 

Of  the  twenty- four  sections  of  land  in  Allen  township  twenty  belong 
to  the  gas  belt,  only  the  four  following  lying  beyond  its  limits,  viz.,  14,  23, 
26,  35.  These  sections  occupy  the  western  line  of  the  township  on  its 
southern  side  and  have  recently  been  found  to  constitute  an  oil  field  of 
great  value  and  promise. 

Up  to  August  last,  forty-six  wells  had  been  drilled  in  the  township. 
Since  that  time,  Findlay  City  has  drilled  ten  or  twelve  wells  additional,. 


124 


GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO. 


and  the  other  companies  have  each  added  a  few.  The  number  now,  there- 
fore, exceeds  sixty.  The  distribution  and  ownership  of  the  wells  is 
partially  shown  in  the  following  list,  those  of  the  southern  sections  being 
named  first.  The  list  is  not  complete  at  the  present  date. 


GAS  WELLS  OF  ALLEN  TOWNSHIP. 


Name  of  landowner. 

Owner  of  well. 

Sec- 
tion. 

Quarter. 

Position. 

Miller  

Findlay  city  

31 

N.  W. 

Center  of  northern  half. 

Skinner  

Kellogg  Pipe  Works- 

80 

8.  W. 

N.  E.  corner 

Toledo  city  

Toledo  city  

30 

N.   E 

N.  W       " 

Toledo  city  

30 

N.  W. 

N.  E.        " 

Mellott  

Northwestern  

30 

N.   E. 

Center  of  northern  half. 

Leiser  

Toledo  city  

30 

S.    E. 

^                n 

Leiser  '  

a 

30 

u 

"      eastern  half. 

Leiser  

ii 

30 

it 

"       southern  half. 

Hart        .                 

30 

S    W 

"       northern  half 

Crowell  

Northwestern  

29 

N.  W. 

N.  E   corner. 

Harris  

Findlay  city  

19 

S.    E 

Center  of  southern  half. 

Huntington,  1,  2  and  3  

u 

19 

« 

S.  W.  corner. 

Ware  

Toledo  city  

19 

S.  W. 

N.  E.  corner. 

"Ware  

« 

19 

u 

S  E.  corner. 

Ware  

H 

19 

u 

u 

Dewey  Stave  Co  

Northwestern  Ohio... 

19 

(i 

u 

Farmers  Co.  (village  lot).. 

Farmers'  Co  

19 

S     E. 

S.  W.  corner. 

Findlay  (village  lot)  

Findlay  city  

19 

u 

« 

Luden,  1  and  U  

« 

19 

U 

S.  E.  corner. 

Downs  

u 

13 

u 

N.  E.  corner. 

Trout  

13 

N.   E. 

(i 

Frank  

18 

u 

N.  W.  corner. 

Kasrv..  . 

Northwestern  

18 

N.  W. 

Central  northern. 

KasTY.... 

u 

18 

S.  W. 

Central  eastern. 

Leiser  

Toledo  city  

18 

« 

N.  E.  corner. 

Leiser  

u 

18 

u 

Center. 

Leiser  

u 

18 

M 

Central  western. 

Leiser  

it 

18 

« 

S.  E.  corner. 

Hutson                          .    ... 

Northwestern  

17 

11 

S.  W.  corner. 

Shelby  

it 

18 

N.  W. 

N.  E.  corner. 

Harris    

Findlay  city  

24 

March                      

« 

?,0 

S.  W. 

Center  of  eastern  half. 

Carr  

20 

N.  E. 

S.  E.  corner. 

Barnd  .           

Northwestern  

?,0 

S.  W. 

N.  W.  corner. 

George  

« 

20 

(( 

Central  western. 

\Veisel  

u 

12 

N.  W. 

Centra]  northern. 

Eckerly  

12 

S.    E. 

Central  southern. 

Kaerv..., 

12 

u 

Central  eastern. 

12 

u 

Center  of  southern  half. 

Marks  &  Kelley  

7 

S.  W. 

S.  W.  corner. 

Carnahan,  1  

Findlay  city   

7 

a 

N.  W.  corner. 

Cam  ah  an.  2  

a 

7 

u 

Central  northern. 

Leiser        

Toledo  city  

11 

n 

N.  W.  corner. 

Baker    No  1         

Northwestern  

6 

N.  E. 

Central  western. 

Baker,  No.  2  

u 

6 

a 

S.  W.  corner. 

Slaughterbeck  

<< 

6 

u 

S.  E.  corner. 

THE   TRENTON    LIMESTONE.  125 

To  this  list  there  may  be  added  without  special  assignment  of  loca- 
tion the  Stough,  Routzen,  Harry  1  and  2,  Eceles,  Biggs,  Weinland,  Mellott 
and  Markle  wells,  all  belonging  to  Findlay  city. 

The  Great   Wells. 

Two  of  the  wells  of  the  township,  viz.,  the  Hutson  on  section  17,  and 
the  Mellott  on  section  30,  have  reached  such  astonishing  figures  that  they 
stand  by  themselves  among  Ohio  wells.  The  Tippecanoe  well  of  Findlay 
township,  if  it  had  maintained  its  initial  flow  for  more  than  a  single  day, 
would  have  deserved  to  be  counted  in  the  same  list.  The  dynamic  pres- 
sure of  the  Hutson  well,  as  long  as  it  remained  open,  reached  the  amazing 
figure  of  forty  three  pounds  in  the  casing.  This  stands  for  a  production 
of  32,000,000  feet  in  twenty-four  hours.  The  facts  pertaining  to  the  well 
are  as  follows :  The  territory  was  not  counted  especially  promising.  A 
Findlay  city  well,  located  sixty  rods  south,  had  proved  to  be  a  small  well. 
The  Hutson  well  found  the  Trenton  limestone  at  1,135  feet  below  the 
surface,  or  at  approximately  330  feet  below  tide.  Before  reaching  the 
Trenton,  a  violent  blower  of  gas  was  found,  at  a  depth  of  800  feet,  the  pro- 
duction of  which  was  estimated  to  be  at  least  4,000,000  feet  per  day.  It 
exhausted  itself  in  the  course  of  thirty-six  hours.  Gas  was  found  as  soon 
as  the  Trenton  limestone  was  reached,  and  from  ten  feet  below  the  surface 
of  the  stratum,  the  flow  was  counted  large.  Drilling  was  continued,  how- 
ever, for  thirty-two  feet  in  the  rock,  but  when  that  depth  was  reached,  a, 
mighty  torrent  of  gas  was  set  free  which  was  at  once  recognized  by  those 
acquainted  with  our  greatest  wells  as  outranking  any  thing  yet  found  in 
the  field.  The  gas  was  entirely  dry.  The  well  was  tubed  with  four-inch 
pipe  and  the  flow  of  the  gas  was  able  to  just  balance  400  feet  of  the  tubing 
when  the  work  was  begun.  It  gained,  however,  some  increase  after  this 
time.  It  was  turned  at  once  into  the  Northwestern  Company's  mains  and 
makes  a  large  factor  in  the  present  supply  of  one  of  its  most  important 
lines.  This  well  was  completed  early  in  1890. 

The  Mellott  well,  situated  in  section  30,  was  drilled  in  the  summer  of 
1889.  The  Trenton  was  penetrated  to  a  depth  of  about  fifty  feet.  The 
gas  showed  an  open  pressure  of  twenty  six  pounds  in  the  casing,  which 
stands  for  a  daily  production  of  27,000,000  feet.  The  well  and  the  gas 
rights  of  the  farm  on  which  it  is  located  were  bought  by  the  Northwestern 
Ohio  Gas  Company.  The  price  paid  for  it  was  $25,000.  This  well  was 
also  promptly  connected  with  the  lines  of  the  company,  and  is  said  to 
have  been  drawing  with  full  force  upon  the  territory  from  the  first. 

Among  the  other  great  wells  of  the  township  may  be  named  the  Dewey 
Stave  Company's  well  at  Stuartsville,  the  Findlay  city  well  in  the  same 
neighborhood,  and  the  Mays  well,  all  of  which  are  said  to  have  shown 


126  GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO. 

eight  pounds  or  more  of  open  pressure  in  the  casing.  Their  production 
began,  therefore,  with  at  leat  17,000  000  feet  per  day.  The  three  Ware 
wells  also,  that  belong  to  the  Toledo  city  trustees  were  very  large  wells, 
yielding,  one  of  them,  in  four-inch,  and  the  other  two  in  three  inch  tubing 
11,860,000,  11,504,000  and  9,101,000  cubic  feet  in  twenty-four  hours 
respectively. 

Characteristics  of  the  Field. 

The  facts  here  given  are  enough  to  establish  the  wonderfully  pro- 
ductive character  of  the  Trenton  limestone  that  underlies  Allen  town- 
ship. The  gas  rock  proper  is  very  open  in  grain  as  a  rule.  It  occurs  in 
beds  of  varying  thickness  and  at  different  depths.  Sometimes  the  great 
flow  is  reached  at  fifteen  or  twenty  feet  in  the  Trenton,  and  sometimes  at 
twice  or  even  three  times  this  depth.  Sometimes  it  is  found  in  the  top  of 
the  stratum,  and  when  this  occurs  drilling  can  be  carried  deeper  than 
when  the  main  flow  is  found  at  fifteen  or  twenty  feet  in  the  rock.  The 
great  flows  often  prevent  any  deeper  descent  of  the  drill.  The  current 
reports  that  the  Stuartsville  field  has  a  thickness  of  seventy  or  eighty  feet 
of  gas  rock  are  entirely  without  foundation.  The  gas  rock  is  of  as  good 
quality  and  is  found  in  as  great  a  thickness  as  in  any  other  portions 
of  the  entire  field,  but  beyond  this  the  facts  do  not  warrant  us  to  go.  In 
explanation  of  the  great  production  of  the  district,  it  is  suggested  that 
the  best  quality  of  rock  is  more  continuous  than  in  the  other  centers  of 
production.  In  other  words,  it  is  the  horizontal  rather  than  the  vertical 
extension  of  the  gas  rock  to  which  the  great  wells  are  owing. 

No  section  of  the  field  shows  on  the  whole  greater  permeability  of  the 
gas  rock  than  this,  but  at  the  same  time  there  are  minor  barriers  es- 
tablished in  it  that  give  rise  to  surprising  results.  The  Hutson  well, 
which  is  beyond  a  question  the  largest  gas  well  ever  drilled  in  Ohio,  is 
surrounded  by  moderate  or  even  small  wells  on  all  sides,  and  separated 
from  them  by  no  great  intervals.  It  may  be  suggested  that  the  size  of  these 
great  wells  is  in  some  way  due  to  the  disturbances  of  equilibrium  and  to 
the  torpedo  shocks  that  have  preceded  them  in  the  field.  Thus  far  none 
of  the  great  wells  has  been  struck  until  the  field  had  undergone  a  good 
deal  of  development. 

The  Mellott  well  was  no  sooner  brought  in  than  a  half  dozen  wells 
were  located  by  different  interests  as  near  to  it  as  they  could  find  stand- 
ing ground.  One  only  of  these  proved  large,  and  its  volume  was  but 
little  more  than  one-half  of  the  volume  of  its  great  neighbor.  Still  more 
inexplicable  is  the  history  of  a  well  drilled  within  sixty  feet  of  the  one 
last  named.  When  the  gas  rock  was  reached  less  than  one-half  of  the 
volume  which  the  new  well  sought  to  rival  was  found  in  it.  There  are 


• 


THE   TRENTON    LIMESTONE.  127 

many  such  cases  as  these  already  on  record,  but  they  by  no  means  invali- 
date the  statements  already  made  as  to  the  general  connection  and  inter- 
dependence of  all  portions  of  the  township.  These  facts  are  abundantly 
substantiated  on  independent  grounds. 

Rock  Pressure  and  Behavior  of  the  Field. 

Owing  to  the  general  permeability  of  the  Trenton  reck  in  Allen 
township  all  portions  of  the  twenty  square  miles  of  the  gas  territory 
share  a  common  fortune,  so  far  as  rock  pressure  is  concerned.  Strictly 
speaking,  Allen  township  belongs  to  the  Findlay  field,  and  its  rock 
pressure  is  really  dependent  on  what  goes  on  in  that  township.  Passing 
northwards  from  the  center  of  Findlay,  during  1889,  for  example,  the 
pressure  was  found  gradually  strengthening  from  the  danger  line  of  250 
pounds  in  the  center  of  the  town  to  300  pounds  in  the  Heck  well,  and 
350  pounds  in  the  northern  tier  of  sections.  Allen  township  started 
with  this  pressure  at  that  time  on  its  southern  boundary,  but  it  made 
important  additions  to  the  northward. 

What  the  original  rock  pressure  of  the  gas  was  in  this  special  district 
we  have  no  means  of  ascertaining.  The  great  Kagy  well  at  Van  Buren 
had  served  as  a  relief  to  the  highest  tension  of  the  gas  before  any  observa- 
tions of  rock  pressure  were  made.  It  flowed  unrestrained  for  six  weeks 
before  it  was  tubed.  A  calculation  of  the  pressure  on  grounds  indicated 
in  Chapter  III  would  make  it  about  460  pounds.  This  estimate  is  con- 
firmed by  the  fact  that  the  first  Stuartsville  well  showed  in  1888  a  pressure 
of  450  pounds.  There  was  then  no  other  well  within  two  miles  of  it  in  any 
direction.  From  this  it  can  be  judged  that  a  distance  of  two  miles 
furnishes  a  measure  of  protection  to  an  isolated  well.  In  1889  the  great 
development  began.  The  Northwestern  Ohio  Gas  Company,  the  Findlay 
and  the  Toledo  trustees  competed  eagerly  with  each  other  for  territory, 
and  wells  were  sunk  in  large  numbers,  as  already  shown.  Several  were 
located  on  village  lots  in  Van  Buren  and  Stuartsville,  and  the  derricks  of 
the  rival  interests  confronted  each  other  along  all  boundaries.  Two  series 
of  gas  mains  were  made  to  penetrate  the  new  field  forthwith,  those, 
namely,  of  the  Northwestern  Ohio  Company,  and  of  the  Findlay  trustees. 
The  Toledo  pipe  line  was  delayed,  but  fifteen  or  twenty  wells  were  drilled 
in  the  township  by  the  city  trustees. 

The  experience  that  has  been  accumulated  since  this  time  is  very 
important,  and  the  deductions  from  it  are  certainly  unexpected  and 
startling.  In  August,  1889,  the  rock  pressure  of  the  Carnahan  wells,  on 
section  7.  a  mile  north  of  Van  Buren,  was  395  pounds.  The  pressure  at 
Stuartsville  had  fallen  without  any  use  whatever  of  the  gas  from  450 
pounds  in  1888  to  385  pounds  in  June,  1889.  When  the  Ware  wells  were 


23  GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO. 

completed  two  or  three  months  later,  the  pressure  was  365  pounds,' 
the  Findlay  Trustees'  wells  registered  325  pounds  in  October. 

Since  this  date  a  rapid  decline  has  set  in,  which  has  Continued  with- 
out arrest  or  abatement  until  the  present  time.  The  figures  for  May,  in 
wells  scattered  through  the  township,  range  from  260  pounds  to  285 
pounds.  In  a  single  well,  viz.,  the  Trout  well,  section  13,  separated  from 
the  main  field,  as  has  been  proved,  by  a  low  ridge  in  the  Trenton  lime- 
stone, a  pressure  of  315  pounds  is  now  reported.  This  is  the  highest 
pressure  known  in  Allen  township  at  the  present  time. 

This  reduction  of  pressure  is  not  by  any  means  restricted  to  wells 
that  are  being  drawn  upon  for  the  supply  of  the  pipe  lines.  It  extends 
to  all  wells  and  nearly  alike  to  all.  A  well  that  has  been  constantly 
locked  in  and  that  has  never  furnished  a  foot  of  gas  for  use  reaches  ap- 
proximately the  same  pressure  that  the  most  heavily  taxed  wells  skow, 
if  the  latter  are  not  more  than  one-quarter  mile  distant.  The  wells 
are  so  distributed  that  the  reduction,  as  has  been  shown,  covers  practically 
the  entire  township.  The  figures  are  best  appreciated  when  set  in  tabular 
statement,  as  they  were  for  Findlay  township  : 

Stuartsville  (Section  19)  1888  450  pounds. 

"  "          June,  1889 385 

"         "    August,  1889 365 

"         "    October,  1889 325 

"         "    May,  1890 275 

Van  Buren  (Section  7)  August,  1889 s 395 

"  "          May,  1890 285 

The  last  named  wells  have  never  been  drawn  upon,  although  con- 
nected with  a  pipe  line. 

The  Stuartsville  field  is  thus  seen  to  have  lost  28  per  cent,  of  the 
pressure  that  it  had  nine  months  ago.  A  like  reduction  for  the  next  nine 
months  would  carry  the  figures  down  to  200  pounds.  But  this  last  named 
figure  stands  practically  for  the  death  of  the  field  so  far  as  the  support  of 
pipe  lines  is  concerned.  The  effective  pressure  at  any  time  is  the  excess 
above  200  pounds.  On  this  basis  the  field  has  lost  60  per  cent,  since  one 
year  ago. 

Not  only  has  the  pressure  decreased,  but  a  corresponding  loss  has 
taken  place  in  the  volume  of  the  wells.  A  large  well  of  the  Stuartsville 
field,  which  was  drilled  in  the  summer  of  1889,  was  re-measured  in  May 
of  this  year  and  the  loss  in  volume  exceeded  40  per  cent.  It  is  not  prob- 
able, however,  that  the  same  percentage  of  decrease  would  be  observed  in 
all  wells  of  the  district. 

Still  another  feature  of  equally  threatening  import  is  the  appearance 
of  oil  in  many  of  the  wells,  and  especially  in  the  wells  of  the  North- 


THE  TRENTON  LIMESTONE.  129 

western  Company.  The  rock  pressure  has  been  suffered  to  fall  far  below 
the  danger  line,  and  it  is  obvious  that  dry  gas  in  time  to  come  must  be 
paid  for  by  the  sacrifice  of  a  large  part  of  the  tension  which  the  gas  may 
still  retain. 

As  to  the  future  of  the  Allen  township  gas  field  we  are  not  left  in 
doubt.  It  is  following  directly  in  the  track  of  the  Findlay  field  to  which 
indeed  it  truly  belongs.  Just  bow  soon  the  remainder  of  the  descent  to' 
2(  0  pounds  will  b->  accomplished  can  not,  of  course,  be  foretold.  It  is 
greatly  to  be  hop  d  that  when  the  Findlay  glass  furnaces  are  closed  lor  the 
Bumm  r  the  decline  will  be  arrested.  It  often  happens  that  pressures  are 
re^-tored,  to  some  extent,  in  gas  fields  between  May  and  November.  They 
are  usually  lowest  in  March  and  A  pill. 

We  are  obliged  to  conclude  from  the  experience  of  Findlay  that  when 
the  pressure  falls  to  200  pounds  the  field  is  practically  dead.  There  will 
still  be  a  large  amount  of  gas  left  in  the  di-trict,  but  it  will  be  so  encum- 
b  red  with  oil  and  water  that  it  can  no  longnr  be  safely  distributed  through 
the  lines  of  the  present  systems. 

The  hope  his  been  entertained  by  many  that  when  the  pressure  of 
the  fi'  Id  has  fallen  to  250  or  300  pounds  the  further  decline  will  be  arrested 
or  at  lea-t  its  rate  of  fall  will  be  greatly  reduced.  The  experience  of  some 
of  the  Pennsylvania  fields  is  adduced  as  pointing  in  this  direction.  Un- 
fortunately the  experience  which  is,  up  to  this  time,  available  in  north- 
western 0  lio,  does  not  support  this  expectation.  The  decline  of  the 
Findlay  fWd,  for  example,  is  arrested  only  when  the  consumption  is- 
stopped  and  the  point  at  which  the  arrest  is  made  is  below  that  at  which 
dry  jias  ca>i  be  supplied  to  the  pip^s.  Even  without  any  large  use  the 
pressure  of  the  Findlay  field  seems  to  be  slowly  falling  at  the  present 
time,  one  of  the  best  remaining  wells  in  the  city  proper,  showing  a  loss 
of  twenty  pounds  between  March  and  May  of  the  present  year,  falling 
from  220  to  200  pounds.  The  gas  in  this  case  must  be  drawn  awa>  to 
po'tions  of  t  e  field  somewhat  remo  e  from  the  depleted  district,  as  but 
little  draught  is  made  upon  it  here. 

Allen  township  has  been  the  great  reliance  of  the  Findlay  and  Toledo- 
gas  trustees,  and  the  splendid  induistdes  of  the  farmer  city  are  leaning 
hard  upon  it  now,  but  the  record  of  the  last  year,  as  given  in  the  preced- 
ing pag-s,  is  undeniably  alarming.  The  Findlay  trustees  are  doing  all 
that  is  in  their  power  to  maintain  their  supply  and  guard  their  wells,  but 
the  life  of  the  field  is  not  within  their  keeping 

Of  the  twenty-four  wells  drilled,  or  purchased  by  the  gas  trustees  of 
Toledo,  about  halt  are  located  in  Allen  township,  and  much  more  than 
half  of  their  estimated  production  is  credited  to  the^e  wells.  An  account 
of  the  importint  action  of  this  city  in  the  matter  of  securing  a  supply  of 
9  G. 


130 


*EOLOGY    OF    OHIO. 


gas  which  shall  be  under  municipal  control,  will  be  given  on  a  succeed- 
ing page.  The  trustees  made  contracts  with  landowners  to  drill  wells 
and  sell  them  the  gas  when  found,  at  specified  amounts  for  each  million 
feet  produced  by  the  completed  wells.  In  one  instance  where  ten  acres 
were  counted  to  a  well,  $1,000  per  million  feet  of  daily  capacity  were  paid 
to  the  landowner  on  the  completion  of  the  wells.  In  another  case,  three 
wells  were  drilled  for  the  trustees  on  fifteen  acres  of  land,  only  five  acres 
being  thus  allowed  to  "each  well.  The  price  in  this  case  was  $750  per 
million  feet.  The  territory  proved  productive  to  a  high  degree,  and  the 
three  wells  aggregated  more  than  thirty  million  feet  of  daily  capacity. 
There  is  good  reason  to  believe  that  if  fifteen  wells  had  been  drilled  on 
the  same  territory,  and  under  the  same  conditions,  they  would  have 
averaged  as  well  as  the  three  that  were  drilled.  In  this  case,  the  produc- 
tion of  the  tract  could  have  been  raised  to  150  million  feet  per  day,  or 
even  this  amount  might  have  been  farther  multiplied  by  putting  down 
a  still  greater  number  of  wells.  Of  course  such  a  multiplication  would 
stand  for  nothing  in  the  supply  of  a  pipe  line,  the  life  and  service  of 
which  should  be  expected  to  continue  for  a  reasonable  term  of  years. 
Just  what  acreage  would  have  been  best  adapted  to  the  character  of  the 
Allen  township  field,  it  is  vain  to  inquire.  The  rival  interests  in  the 
acquisition  and  use  of  the  gas  forbade  from  the  first  a  wise  and  economical 
administration  of  this  noble  stock  of  power.  But  if  at  least  eighty  acres 
could  have  been  left  to  each  well,  and  if  a  back  pressure  of  at  least  200 
pounds  could  have  been  assured  to  each,  instead  of  running  a  meteoric 
race  of  one  or  two  years,  this  sub-division  of  the  field  might  have  con- 
tinued to  pour  out  its  store  of  light  and  heat  and  power  for  possibly  a 
decade.  A  single  well  will  undoubtedly  drain  a  large  acreage. 


Owner  of  land. 

Owner  of  well. 

Section. 

Quarter. 

Position. 

Northwestern  Ohio  Co  

1 

4  wells  ... 

E.  half. 

<<                   « 

2 

N  E  

Border  

ii                   <i 

2 

8.  W  

N.  E.  corner. 

Overholt  

it                   it 

10 

N.  E  .".. 

ii 

Frank  

i<                   « 

10 

N.E  

Center. 

Beeson  

Findlay  City  

21 

8.  W  

(i 

"Wills  

ii 

21 

8.  E  

ii 

^'einland  

a 

21 

8.  E  

S.  E.  corner. 

Baker  

Toledo  City  

26 

N.E  

Center. 

Hammond  

M 

26 

8.  W  

Center,  west* 

Peebles   

Northwestern  Ohio  

27 

8.  W  

ii 

Grubb  

Findlay  City  

28 

8  W  

i< 

\Veinliiiid  

ii 

28 

N.E  

N.  E.  corner. 

Norris  

«i 

33 

N.E  

Near  center. 

Gasman  

Tiffin  City  

34 

S.  E  

ii 

THE   TRENTON    LIMESTONE.  13! 

(3)  Cass  Township. — Like  Allen,  Cass  township  consists  of  twenty- 
four  sections.     All  of  them  have  been  counted  good  gas  territory  from  the 
first  aud  nothing  has  been  found  in  the  development  hitherto  to  change 
this  estimate.     The  southeastern  sections  give  It  ss  promise  than  the  rest. 
A  partial  list  of  the  gas  wells  already  drilled  in  the  township  is  appended. 

Compared  with  the  great  wells  of  Allen  township,  the  wells  of  Cass 
are  moderate  in  volume.  Their  ordinary  range  is  from  one  to  four  million 
feet  per  day.  Those  on  the  western  boundary  share  all  the  conditions  of 
the  field  last  described.  The  rock  pressure  in  wells  located  on  section  21 
was  found  to  be  285  pounds  in  April,  1890,  but  the  anomalous  figure  of 
390  pounds  is  reported  for  a  single  well  of  small  volume  in  the  north  cen- 
tral part  of  the  township  at  the  present  time,  May,  1890.  This  well  is  two 
miles  or  more  distant  from  other  wells,  but  it  is  probable  that  it  is  also 
protected  by  some  structural  features  as  yet  undeveloped  from  the  ex- 
haustion that  is  now  in  progress  in  the  entire  region.  The  gas  rock  is 
known  to  be  cloee  and  compact  in  this  particular  district. 

(4)  Marion  Township — This  township  is  strictly  continuous  with 
the  Findlay  gas  field.     It  was  proved  to  be  productive  in  1886  and  has 
been  an  important  source  of  supply  since  gas  began  to  be  piped  away  from 
the  district.     The  Tiffin  Natural  Gas  Company,  which  is  now  merged  in 
or  controlled  by  the  Northwestern  Ohio  Company,  has  derived  all  the  gas 
that  it  has  carried  to  Tiffin  from  three  wells  located  in  this  township,  viz., 
the  Thorntree  well,  located  on  the  farm  of  Isaac  Davis,  and  the  Blair  and 
Underwi  od  wells.     The  company  has  drilled  other  wells  in  the  township, 
but  thus  far  has  not  utilized  them.     The  well  drilled  in  1887  on  the  Adam 
Roth  farm,  in  Section  14,  was  for  one  month,  lacking  one  day,  the  greatest 
gas  well  that  had  at  that  time  been  drilled  in  the  new  field.     The  open 
pressure  in  the  casing  was  fully  six  and  one-half  pounds,  according  to  the 
testimony  of  the  superintendent  of  the  line.     But  at  the  end  of  the  time 
named  above,  the  well  was  overrun  with  a  flood  of  salt  water  which  it 
was  hopeless  to  oppose.     The  gag  was  blown  out  like  a  lamp,  and  it  gives 
no  sign  in  the  present  heavy  column  of  sulphurous  brine  that  occupies 
its  former  place. 

The  Thorntree  well  was  the  main  reliance  of  the  line  for  a  year  or 
more,  but  its  gas  was  never  dry.  Oil,  in  large  quantity,  appeared  within 
a  week  after  the  well  was  finished,  and  for  the  last  year  it  has  gained  so 
much  that  it  has  been  found  necessary  to  shut  the  well  off  from  the  line 
altogether.  If  it  were  allowed  to  flow  freely,  there  is  some  ground  for  ex- 
pecting that  it  would  make  a  fair  oil  well.  Though  shut  off  from  the  line, 
its  pressure  has  fallen  nearly  at  the  same  rate  as  in  the  wells  that  have 
been  most  heavily  taxed.  It  is  reported  as  standing  now  at  a  little  above 
800  pounds  (311£  pounds  in  May,  1890).  When  first  drilled  it  showed 


132 


GEOLOGY   OF    OHIO. 


450  pounds,  and  it  did  not  fall  far  below  this  figure  for  a  long  time.  Its 
days  as  a  gas  well  are  already  numbered. 

Clustered  around  tbe  Tborntree  and  the  Roth  wells,  in  Sections  10, 
11,  14  and  15,  are  the  four  wells  of  the  Carey  Natural  Gas  Company,  and 
the  ^atne  number  also  ol  the  Kenton  Company.  As  pointed  out  on  a  pre- 
vious page,  these  wells  interlock  in  a  way  that  is  dangerous  to  the  lite  of 
the  field.  Some  of  the  wells  aie  hut  one  or  two  bundled  ft  et  apart  and  it 
is  obvious  that  some  have  been  run  without  any  back  pressure  whatever. 
The  gas  rock  has  consequently  been  invaded  by  water  and  the  pi  ensure 
has  declined  at  an  alarmingly  rapid  rale.  It  is  now  below  300  pounds, 
having  lost  a  full  hundred  pounds  during  the  la&t  eight  months,  and 
during  the  surnrmr  rest  of  the  field  it  will  scarcely  reach  300  pounds. 

A  partial  list  of  the  wells  drilled  in  the  township  is  given  below: 


Owner  of  land. 

Ownpr  of  well. 

Section. 

Quarter. 

Northwestern  Ohio  Co  

11 

N.  W. 

Adil'll     Hot  ll  

<                i 

n 

Blair  

<                i 

11 

Underwood  

<                 < 

11 

Mrs.   Wolfe  

Carey  Natural  GHS  Co  

11 

Dr.  Daviw  

11 

G  ick  

*                • 

14 

Bond  

<                < 

11 

Kenton  Co.'s  Nos.  1.  2,  3,  4  are  located  mainly  in  section  11.  Several 
small  wells  have  been  drilled  in  other  portions  of  the  township. 

As  has  been  already  shown,  Marion  township  has  lo.^t  33^  per  c*-nt. 
of  its  oii^inal  rock  pressure,  and  counting  200  pounds  as  essential  to  the 
maintenance  of  the  field  in  safe  condition,  it  has  lost  60  per  cent,  of 
the  pressure  which  could  properly  be  counted  available  at  the  opening  of 
its  wells. 

(5)  Washington  Township — The  northwestern  corner  of  the  town- 
ship is  to  be  count  d  as  a  part  of  the  great  Bloom  township  pas  field. 
Section  6  has  furnished  four  w^lls  to  th«  Northwestern  Ohio  Company, 
whii-h  are  known  as  the  Kelley  w«-lls.  They  are  all  of  moderate  volume, 
but  have  proved  valuable  sources  of  dry  gas  to  the  pipe  line.  They  have 
received  due  care  and  protection  through  all  their  history  and  still  show 
fair  volume  and  pressure.  No  wells  of  the  field  exhihit  more  vitality  than 
these. 

In  section  20,  two  or  more  wells  of  small  production  have  been  drilled 
f  »r  the  supply  of  the  village  of  Arcadia.  The  production  of  the  wells  is 
underetood  to  be  a  few  hundred  thousand  feet  per  day. 


THE  TRENTON    LIMESTONE.  133 

Tests  in  other  portions  of  the  township  have  not  given  encouragement 
to  the  driller,  although,  of  course,  oil  and  gas  in  small  quantities  are  to  be 
found  every-where  in  this  general  district. 

The  satue  line  of  remarks  applies  to  Big  Lick  township  at  the  present 
tim^,  but  tests  of  the  oil  production  of  this  township  are  in  progreps  that 
will  soon  show  the  real  character  of  the  Trenton  limestone  underl}  i ig  i 

GAS    WELLS   OF   WOOD    COUNTY. 

This  county  takes  the  lead  at  present  in  the  gas  production  of  the 
State.  In  this  production  six  townships  have  a  part,  but  the  gas  wells 
of  two  at  least  are  growing  feeble,  and  of  the  remaining  ft  ur  one  only  is 
of  great  value.  The  townships  named  in  the  order  of  their  importance 
are  Bloom,  Perry,  Henry,  Portage,  Plain  and  Center.  The  production 
of  these  townships  will  be  separately  described. 

(1)  Bloom  Townshij. — This  township  consists  of  thirty-fix  square 
miles.  Its  surface  is  approximately  level,  though  there  is  a  gradual  fall 
to  the  northward.  The  elevations  of  a  few  wells  are  given  to  illustrate 
this  unilormity  of  the  surface.  The  entire  range  for  the  sections  repre- 
sented is  less  than  50  feet. 

Smith,  H Section    6 707  feet  above  tide. 

SIIUOD,  G "         9 750 

Lefler "       16 719 

Bailey "       16 7^3 

Wyriek "      17  721 

Neihel "      21 725 

Richards "       25  751 

Stove "      27 , 732 

Fries  "      27 739 

Painter "       28  730 

Fife,  W.  H "      31 744 

Welker "      31 736 

Stave  Co.,  Bairdstown "       33 743 

BloomdaleCo "       35 755 

Urie "       35 752 

Myers "      36 755 

Sections  1,  2,  3,  4,  10,  11,  12,  13,  14,  24,  can  not  in  the  light  of  present 
knowledge  be  counted  gas  territory.  In  part  of  them,  the  rock  is  occupied 
by  oil  and  where  oil  is  found  in  this  part  of  the  field,  salt  water  is  not  far 
below.  The  most  northeasterly  sections  seem  to  be  verging  toward  barren 
territory.  On  the  northwestern  line  of  sections,  viz.,  in  6,  7  and  18,  the 
production  is  divided  between  oil  and  gas.  The  remainder  of  the  town- 
ship constitutes  the  largest  and  most  valuable  continuous  portion  of  the 
original  Findlay  gas  field.  The  upper  surface  of  the  Trenton  limestone 
mainly  lies  between  300  and  360  teet  below  tide.  It  constitutes  a  low 
arch  rising  from  380  feet  below  tide  at  North  Baltimore  to  300  feet  in  the 


134 


GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO. 
Bloom  Township  Gas   Wells. 


Names  of  farms. 

Names  of  owners. 

Section.  | 

t* 

V 

03 

3 

& 

Position. 

Adams  

Northwestern  

28 

S.E. 

S.  E.  corner. 

Bailey      

a 

16 

S.E. 

u 

Barringer          

0 

35 

s.w. 

W.  half,  W.  of  ce'ter. 

B^edle                    

<( 

17 

S.E. 

N.  E.  corner. 

(( 

27 

N.E. 

S.  of  Pike,  in  corner 

Brownheller     

Tiffin  

86 

N.E. 

of  road. 
N.  W.  corner. 

Bru  baker  

Northwestern  

15 

N.E. 

Near  cen.  of  E.  line. 

Busby    

<( 

22 

N.E. 

Near  cen.  of  W.  line. 

Busby,  T                   

« 

M 

S.W. 

N.  E.  corner. 

Fife    W    H 

Toledo  

31 

N.E 

S.  E.  corner. 

Fife  W  H 

u 

81 

S.E. 

u 

Fife  N                     

u 

81 

SE. 

S.  W.  corner. 

Fife    N                      

U 

31 

S.E. 

N.  W.  corner. 

Fries           

North  western  

27 

N.E. 

N.  E.  corner. 

Fry  

Toledo  

16 

N.E. 

Near  N.  W.  corner. 

Gray   K 

it 

30 

N.E. 

N.  E.  corner. 

Handwick.  J  

Northwestern  

29 

S.W. 

it 

K  un  kle  r  

u 

22 

S.E. 

N.  of  cen.  of  S.  half. 

Lefler     

u 

16 

S.W. 

N.  of  center,  near  W. 

L/enhart  

Bloomdale  Development  Co. 

35 

S.E. 

line. 
E.  of  cen.  of  N.  half. 

Fostoria  

25 

N.E. 

S  E.  corner. 

Mincks           .      ...      

Northwestern  

35 

S.W. 

N.  E.  corner. 

Moore  

(i 

14 

JS'.E. 

W.   of  center,  near 

Mock  M          

Toledo  

30 

N.E. 

N.  line. 
S.  E.  corner. 

Myers  

Bloomdale  

36 

S.W. 

S.  W.  corner. 

Painter   

Northwestern  

28 

N.E. 

N.  E.  corner. 

Neibel,  E  

21 

S.E. 

N.  of  cen.  of  E.  half. 

Pelton  

24 

S.E. 

N.  E.  corner. 

Rhodes  L          

3? 

S.W. 

Center  of  N.  half. 

Richards   ^^m.      .  .      . 

25 

S.E. 

S.  W.  corner. 

Rosendale  

28 

S.E. 

Center  of  S.  half. 

Simon  E      

32 

S.E. 

N.  E  corner. 

Tiffin... 

35 

N.E. 

Near  ce.n.  of  W.  half. 

Ci 

36 

N  W. 

Near  N.  W.  corner. 

Simon    G              .... 

Northwestern  

35 

N.W. 

S.  W.  corner. 

Toledo  ^  

9 

S.W. 

S.  E.  corner. 

Simon   L  

30 

S.E. 

N.  E.  corner. 

Simon  L              

« 

9,9 

N.W. 

Toledo  

9 

S.W. 

Center  of  N.  half. 

Smith   W.  H    

Northwestern  

36 

S.E. 

N.  E.  corner. 

Smith  H      

Toledo  

8 

N.R 

Near  cen.  of  W.  half. 

Smith   S 

t< 

8 

N.W 

S.  W.  corner. 

Swinehart          

Northwestern  

23 

N.W. 

Near  cen.  of  E.  half. 

Stove                           

« 

27 

N.W. 

N.  W.  corner. 

u 

35 

N.E. 

N.  E.  corner. 

Toledo  Co        

Toledo    

17 

N.W. 

II 

Wyric   D    H 

u 

17 

N.W. 

11 

Stave  Co  of  Bairdstown 

Bairdstown  

33 

S.W. 

N.  W.  corner. 

Welker  

31 

N.W. 

Center. 

vicinity  of  Bairdstown,  and  descending  again  to  380  feet  on  the  eastern 
side  of  the  township.    There  are,  however,  a  few  abrupt  flexures  of  the 


THE    TRENTON    LIMESTONE.  135 

strata  disclosed  by  the  drill  in  the  northern  central  sections  and  some 
disappointment  as  to  the  continuity  of  the  gas  territory  has  been  occa- 
eioned  by  this  discovery.  Oil  and  salt  water  make  an  unwelcome  appear- 
ance where  all  was  thought  to  be  highly  productive  gas  land.  The  gas 
wells  are  not  of  the  largest  capacity,  but  they  hold  an  excellent  average. 
Few  of  them  showed,  while  the  field  was  fresh,  less  than  3,000,000  feet  of 
daily  flow  from  the  casing.  At  the  other  extreme  stood  the  great  Simons 
well  with  its  12.000,000  feet  of  daily  flow. 

A  list  of  the  gas  wells  or  the  township,  nearly  complete  to  August, 
1889,  is  here  appended.  The  principal  a  Iditions  to  the  number  since  this 
date  are  the  wells  "drilled  by  the  Tiffin  trustees  on  eections  26,  36  and  35 
and  a  few  others  by  the  companies  previously  in  the  field,  as  Fostoria, 
the  Northwestern  Ohio,  etc. 

Rock  Pressure  and  Behavior  of  the  Field. 

The  original  rock  pressure  of  the  Bloom  township  gas  wells  is  com- 
monly given  as  ranging  from  440  to  465  pounds.  A  large  number  of  the 
wells  showed  figures  within  these  limits  when  the  gas  was  first  reached. 
The  highest  rock  pressure  of  the  township  is  reci  rded  in  the  case  of  the 
great  Simon's  well,  already  referred  to.  When  the  well  was  new,  by 
shutting  off  the  flow,  a  pressure  of  480  pounds  would  be  almost  instantly 
shown,  and  very  soon  thereafter  520  pounds  would  be  registered,  at  which 
point  the  gauge  was  steady.  These  figures  are  anomalous.  They  have 
not  been  duplicated,  so  far  as  known,  in  the  entire  field.  A  pressure  of 
480  pounds  would  require  a  depth  of  the  porous  Trenton  of  404  feet 
below  tide,  according  to  the  calculations  previously  given,  in  which  the 
salt  water  is  assumed  to  rise  600  feet  above  tide.  The  Rocky  Ford  well, 
one  mile  to  the  northwest  of  the  Simon's  well,  found  the  Trenton  424  feet 
below  tide  and  buried  in  salt  water.  For  the  480  pounds  we  could  there- 
fore well  enough  account,  but  not  for  the  520  pounds  without  the  ascent 
of  the  water  column  to  a  height  of  more  than  600  feet  above  tide.  It 
would  require  a  column  1090  feet  in  length  to  produce  this  pressure,  or  in 
other  words,  the  salt  water  should  have  risen  in  the  Rocky  Ford  well 
within  100  feet  of  the  surface. 

In  July,  1889,  the  rock  pressure  ranged  between  375  and  390  poun*ds 
in  the  wells  of  Bloom  township.  Wells  situated  three-quarters  of  a  mile 
from  any  direct  draught  dropped  to  the  same  figure  that  wells  of  the 
pipe  lines  showed. 

The  present  rock  pressure  of  the  most  prolific  portion  of  the  township 
is  330  pounds.  This  figure  was  obtained  on  May  17,  1890,  from  the 
Bloomdale  Improvement  Company's  well,  located  within  the  village 


136  GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO. 

limits,  the  original  pressure  of  which  is  given  as  460  pounds.  The  well 
has  never  been  in  use,  and  but  little  of  its  gas  has  been  burned  in  vain  dis- 
play, but  it  has  lost  130  pounds  of  pressure  through  the  drainage  of  the 
territory  effected  by  neighboring  wells.  The  total  reduction  is  see  a  to  be 
twenty-eight  per  cent,  of  the  original  pressure,  as  in*  Allen  township. 
Counting  200  pounds  the  danger  line,  as  in  the  Findlay  field,  the  original 
effective  or  available  pressure  was  260  pounds.  Just  one-half  of  this  has 
been  lost  without  any  use  of  the  well.  A  measurement  of  the  volume 
showed  also  a  considerable  reduction  from,  that  recorded  two  years  ago. 
Counting  445  pounds  the  average  pressure  of  the  township,  the  loss  has 
already  reached  26  per  cent.,  and  the  available  pressure  has  been  reduced 
47.per  cent.  These  figures  are  appended  in  tabular  statement. 

Kock  pressure,  Bloomdale,  1887 440-465  pounds. 

"  "  1888 

"  "  1889,  July 375-390  pounds. 

"  "  1890,  May 325-330        " 

It  is  greatly  to  be  hoped  that  the  gas  may  be  maintained  in  proper 
condition  for  piping  in  this  most  important  center  of  the  field  when  its 
pressure  falls  below  200  pounds,  but  such  facts  as  have  been  obtained  do 
not  afford  encouragement  to  this  view.  From  all  the  light  that  is  now 
available,  we  must  conclude  that  gas  can  not  be  sent  out  to.  markets  thirty 
or  more  miles  distant  after  its  initial  pressure  has  fallen  below  the  limit 
above  named. 

The  presence  of  so  many  separate  interests  in  Bloom  township  gas 
field  is  certain  to  lead  to  a  comparatively  rapid  exhaustion  of  it,  in  the 
first  place  and  principally  because  of  the  larger  amounts  required  by  the 
several  pipe  lines,  and  in  the  second  place,  because  the  conflicting  interests 
whose  respective  lands  interlock  with  each  other  can  not  be  relied  upon 
to  maintain  the  back  pressure  that  the  preservation  of  the  field  demands. 
All  turns,  of  course,  upon  the  amounts  required  by  the  pipe  lines.  Most 
of  the  companies  have  a  heavy  responsibility  on  their  hands  in  the  supply 
of  extensive  factories,  and  so  long  as  they  can  keep  their  pipes  full  to-day, 
they  are  sure  to  do  it,  even  at  the  risk  of  damage  to  their  field  to-morrow 
or  in  a  week,  a  month  or  six  months.  They  put  as  far  off  as  they  can 
thi  evil  day,  even  though  they  see  it  steadily  coming  nearer. 

The  volume  of  a  well  decreases  with  its  loss  of  rock  pressure,  but  the 
rate  is  not  the  same.  If  a  well  is  heavily  taxed  its  volume  goes  down 
faster  than  its  pressure.  One  well  has  receded  from  a  production  of  three 
and  one-half  million  feet  per  day  to  one  and  one-half  million  feet  during 
the  two  years  of  its  flow. 


THE   TRENTON     LIMESTONE.  137 

The  companies  now  drawing  gas  from  Bloom  township  in  the  large 
way  are  the  following,  viz.,  The  Northwestern  Ohio  Company,  through  two 
main  lines,  the  Fostoria  Corporation  trustees  and  the  Tiffin  Corporation 
trustees.  The  Toledo  trustees  have  also  bought  and  leased  lands  in  the 
township  a(nd  have  drilled  a  number  of  wells. 

The  Bowling  Green  Natural  Gas  Company  has  also  acquired  the  gas 
rights  of  500  acres  in  the  southwestern  portion  of  the  township,  namely, 
in  Sections  28  aud  33. 

Some  of  the  wells  of  the  different  companies  have  recently  been 
drilled  on  small  tracts,  as  on  village  lots.  This  policy,  when  adopted  by 
any  company,  naturally  leads  to  undue  ha«te  on  the  part  of  its  neighbors 
to  secure  their  share  of  ihe  gas  supply  and  the  nearest  wells  are  accord- 
ingly likely  to  be  allowed  to  run  into  the  lines  without  the  proper  back 
pressure.  The  gas  in  the  rock  does  not  respect  surface  boundaritp,  and  a 
well  drilled  on  a  village  lot  has  as  good  a  hold  upon  the  field  as  a  well  on 
a  quarter  section,  provided  other  wells  are  not  driued  near  by.  Around 
several  centers  of  disturbance  of  this  sort,  the  rock  pressure  has  fallen 
considerably  below  th*at  of  the  field  at  large  and  to  a  point  that  indicates 
danger  in  the  near  future  if  the  fall  is  continued.  It  seems  to  be  within 
the  power  of  any  party  owning  one  or  more  wtlls  to  greatly  reduce  or 
even  to  destroy  the  value  of  the  gas  territory  near  its  wells.  The  radius 
through  which  the  evil  effects  of  the  abuse  of  a  well  can  be  felt  varies,  no 
doubt,  in  different  parts  of  a  gas  field.  It  must,  in  this  region,  be  as  great 
as  one  quarter  of  a  mile. 

The  Northwestern  Ohio  Company  has  secured  the  gas  rights  of  almost 
the  entire  township.  It  did  this  at  an  early  day,  and  most  of  its  land  is 
'held  at  an  annual  rental  of  $1  per  acre,  with  $100  for  each  well  that  is 
drilled  paid  to  the  landowner.  Scattered  farms,  however,  and  small  tracts, 
distributed  here  and  there  through  the  township,  it  failed  to  get,  and 
these  have  become  the  points  of  attack  on  the  part  of  ihe  competing  cor- 
porations. It  has  been  especially  easy  to  obtain  ground  on  which  a  der- 
rick might  be  planted  in  and  around  the  small  villages  of  the  township. 
Wells  have  accordingly  been  drilled  by  the  several  boards  of  city  trut-tees 
at  or  near  Bloomdale,  Bairdstown  and  Eagleville.  The  tracts  that  have 
been  left  over  have  been  the  objects  of  sharp  competition.  Annual 
rentals  of  $10  or  $15  an  acre  are  readily  paid  and  farms,  worth  for  agri- 
cultural purposes  $50  to  $75,  are  sold  at  $150  or  $175  per  acre.  As  old 
leases  expire  also,  the  farmers  are  quick  to  recognize  their  advantage,  and 
each  one  expects  to  obtain  a  little  more  than  his  neighbor  has  been  able 
to  get. 

The  Fostoria  trustees  hold  comparatively  little  land  in  Bloom  town- 
ship. They  have  recently  drilled  two  wells,  one  forty  rods  east  of  Eagle- 


138  GEOLOGY   OF    OHIO. 

yille,  and  the  other,  in  Section  35,  a  half  mile  to  the  southwest.  The  first 
is  a  well  of  small  volume.  The  second  produced  a  large  volume  of  gas 
after  being  torpedoed,  but  salt  water  came  with  it.  Its  production  is 
estimated  by  the  trustees  at  four  million  feet  per  day.  It  remains  to  be  seen 
how  much  of  the  gas  can  be  rendered  available  for  the  pipe  line.  They 
have  another  well  in  Section  25,  which  was  drilled  last  year. 

The  Tiffin  trustees  have  drilled  seven  wells  in  Bloom  township,  and 
have  others  under  contract.  Two  that  are  located  on  Section  26  are  re- 
ported by  the  Superintendent  as  respectively  yielding  five  and  one-half 
and  six  million  feet  from  the  casing.  Other  wells  are  located  in  Sections 
35  and  36.  The  Browneller  well,  on  the  north  side  of  Section  36,  is  said 
to  have  shown  a  production  of  three  million  feet  from  the  casing,  with  a 
rock  pressure  of  450  pounds  as  recently  as  November,  1888.  If  the  obser- 
vations of  pressure  are  correct,  the  decline  to  330  pounds  within  eighteen 
months,  shows  that  the  vitality  of  the  field  is  giving  way  at  an  alarming 
rate.  On  the  south  side  of  Section  36,  a  weak  we^l  was  drilled,  which 
after  being  "  shot,"  filled  up  with  salt  water  and  was  abandoned. 

The  Toledo  trustees'  wells  are  located  in  Sections  8,  9,  16,  17,  30  and 
31,  all  of  which  is  justly  counted  excellent  gas  territory. 

The  Bowling  Green  Gas  Company's  territory  consists  of  about  500 
acres  of  well  esteemed  gas  lands,  mainly,  located  in  Sections  28  and  35. 
No  wells  have  been  drilled  as  yet.  The  rock  pressure  of  the  nearest  wells 
is,  at  the  present  writing  (May,  1890),  325  pounds.  For  the  gas  rights  of 
a  part  of  its  land,  the  company  pays  $10  an  acre  annual  rental. 

(2)  Perry  township.  Sections  21,  22,  27,  28,  29,  30,  31,  32,  33  and  34, 
in  whole  or  in  part,  deserve  or  have  at  one  time  deserved  to  be  called  gas 
territory.  Section  31,  in  the  extreme  southwestern  corner  of  the  town- 
ship, was  the  earliest  to  be  proved,  and  it  was  found  to  have  the  same 
good  character  as  the  adjacent  sections  of  Bloom,  Cass  and  Washington. 
The  Water  Tanks  or  Godsend  well  was  the  pioneer  well  of  this  section, 
having  been  drilled  in  the  summer  of  1886.  Twenty  or  more  wells  have 
since  been  finished  in  the  township.  The  following  is  a  list  nearly  com- 
plete to  date. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  Fostoria  and  Tiffin  trustees  own  the  larger 
number  of  these  wells.  Fostoria  was  early  in- the  field  and  acquired  a  fair 
acreage  of  the  most  desirable  lands  of  the  township  at  low  annual  rentals. 
OQ  these  lands  the  trustees  have  drilled  eight  wells,  most  of  which  are 
still  on  the  line.  The  pressure  is  maintained  better  in  No.  1  than  in  any 
of  the  others,  obviously  because  of  the  greater  interval,  viz.,  one  mile 
which  separates  it  from  other  wells.  It  is,  however,  invaded  to  some  ex- 
tent by  salt  water  and  oil,  producing  probably  four  to  five  barrels  per 


THE   TRENTON    LIMESTONE.  139 

LIST  OF  GAS  WELLS  IN  PEKRY  TOWNSHIP,  WOOD  COUNTY. 


Names  of  farms. 

Company. 

Section. 

Quarter. 

Position  in  quarter. 

Elevation. 

Branrteberry 

Tiffin              

22 

N.  E  . 

S.  E  corner     

Brown  

31 

8.  W  

Ctnter  of  E.  line  

Chilcote  

a 

29 

S.  W  

S.  E.  corner  

746.28 

Northwestern  

11 

s.  w  

8.  W.  corner  

Cooper  

Tiilin  

15 

N.  W  

S.  E.  corner  

Graner  

26 

s.  w  

N.  tide  of  N.  half,  

Hale     

Fostoria  

32 

s.  w  , 

Near  N.  E.  corner  

Hatfield,  A.  (Oil)  . 

Tiffin  

29 

s.  w  

S.  W.  corn*  r  

748.18 

33 

N.W  

N.  W.corniT  

748.57 

Kelley  

Northwestern  

21 

8.  W.... 

N.  W.  corner  

Lambright  

Tiffin  

27 

S.  E  

S.  W.  corner,  near  road.. 

752.38 

Mason,  S 

32 

S.  W  

N.  W.  rorner  

Pe>  bles,No.  I 

Fostoria  

31 

N.  E  

<  'enter  of  N.half  

74978 

"        No.  2  

31 

N.  E  

150  ft.  from  cen.  of  E.  line 

Pruyn 

ii 

SO 

S.  E  

8.  E.  corner  .".. 

746.78 

8tilwell,  8   

ii 

30 

S.  W  

S.  E.  corner  

745.15 

"          (Dry)     . 

ii 

30 

S.  W  

N.  E.  corner  

Wineland 

ii 

32 

S.  W  

S.  E.  corner  . 

week  Two  wells  of  the  corporation  have  been  cut  out  of  the  line  for  the 
reason  that  they  had  turned  into  oil  wells.  The  remainder  require  to  be 
"blown  off"  two  or  three  times  a  week  to  relieve  them  of  the  oil  and 
water  that  constantly  follow  the  gas.  The  rate  of  advance  of  these  sub- 
stances is  not  rapid,  however,  and  the  field  shows  fair  vitality.  The  de- 
cline of  pressure  is  the  most  serious  feature  in  the  case.  The  Fostoria 
wells,  however,  are  so  ne-ir  the  points  of  supply  that  they  are  taxed  but 
little  in  delivering  their  gas,  and  they  can  maintain  their  supply  when 
more  distant  stations  will  fall  short.  Some  of  the  wells,  according  to  the 
information  at  hand,  have  fallen  as  low  as  275  pounds  rock  pressure,  and 
none  now  exceed  325  pounds.  The  original  pressure  was  450  to  470 
pounds.  The  loss  of  the  last  year  has  nowhere  been  less  than  fifty  pounds 
and  it  has  probably  averaged  seventy-five  pounds. 

The  Tiffin  trustees  hold  a  large  acreage  of  so-called  gas  territory  in 
Perry  township,  for  which  they  paid  $20,000.  On  this  territory  they  have 
drilled  nine  wells,  and  with  their  present  knowledge  they  would  scarcely 
drill  one,  and  for  the  entire  gas  right  they  would  be  willing,  with  their 
present  knowledge,  to  pay  but  a  very  small  amount.  The  trustees  have 
already  expended  on  this  township,  at  the  lowest  calculation,  $30,000, 
from  which  no  adequate  return  seems  likely  to  be  secured.  By  this  costly 
experiment  they  have  come  to  the  same  point  which  all  who  were  properly 
intelligent  in  regard  to  the  fit-Id  had  reached  when  the  trustees  started 
upon  the  development.  They  had  no  competition  at  any  time  from  those 
who  had  followed  the  history  of  tbe  gas  production  of  the  neighborhood. 
Of  these  wells — several  are  entirely  unproductive — several  others  produce 
oil  and  water  in  such  amount  that  they  must  be  excluded  from  the  lines r 
and  the  best  of  them  is  but  very  small  in  value. 


140  GEOLCGY    OF    OHIO. 

(3)  Henry  Township;  North  Baltimore. — Henry  township  gets  its  dis- 
tinction and  value  in  the  present  connection, from  oil  and  not  irom  gas; 
but  in  its  southeastern  corner,  Sections  25  and  36  have  proved  fair  gas 
territory.  The  gas  field  has  been  found  by  development  to  make  an 
unusuil  excursion  to  the  westward,  through  SfCtioiis2,  3,  4, 10,  11,  Portage 
township,  and  on  its  return  to  the  general  northward  direction  that  it 
follows  here,  it  includes  the  two  sections  of  Henry  named  above. 

The  gas  of  these  two  sections  has  been  turned  to  accoui.t  by  the 
village  corporation  of  North  Baltimore,  and  to  some  extent  by  the  other 
-companies  whose  lines  traverse  the  field.  It  was  first  reached  by  a  well 
drilled  in  1886  by  C.  C.  Conroy  &  Co.  The  well  was  located  on  the 
Peters  farm,  three-quarters  of  a  mile  east  of  the  village  The  Trenton  is 
found  to  have  risen  seventy  one  feet  in  the  interval  between  this  point 
and  the  center  of  the  corporation.  The^e  wells  now  belong  to  the 
municiptl  corporation,  and  with  two  other  wells  furnish  a  full  supply  for 
tliK  dwellings  and  the  factories  of  the  village.  The  original  well  is  re- 
ported as  continuing  its  production  in  fiir  volume  s'ill. 

The  corporation  has  secured  the  gas  rights  of  280  acres,  mainly  in  the 
west  half  of  Section  36,  and  has  drilled  the  two  wells  named  above.  The 
second  of  these  was  drilled  a  little  deeper  than  No.  1,  and  whenever 
the  back  pressure  is  allowed  to  fall  it  throws  a  little  ^alt  water.  Well  No. 
.3  shows,  in  like  manner,  a  little  oil.  All  the  wells  of  the  line  need  to  be 
blown  twice  a  week  at  least. 

The  line  consists  of  1,700  and  1  600  feet,  respectively,  of  three  inch 
And  two-inch  pipe,  with  a  single  line  of  four  inch  pipe  to  a  glass  factory. 

The  rates  for  gas  in  the  corporation  are  as  follows : 

Cooking  stoves,  $1.00  per  month. 

Heating  stoves,  $1.37  per  month,  seven  months  of  the  year. 

Lights,  eight  cents  per  j-t,  per  month. 

The  lighting  of  the  streets  is  thus  far  effected  by  torches  and  arches 
that  make  night  hideous.  It  is  surprising  and  discouraging,  after  all  the 
experience  that  has  been  accumulated,  to  see  the  same  wasteful  policy 
that  prevailed  in  the  older  centers  blossom  out  on  the  smaller  scale  here. 
The  trustees  have  no  knowledge  of  the  production  of  their  wells,  or  of  the 
amount  of  gas  used  irom  their  lines.  By  reason  of  the  manufactures 
recently  established  here  upon  free  gas,  and  also  by  reason  of  the  develop- 
ment of  an  important  oil  fi-;ld  included  in  and  continuous  with  the 
village  limits,  the  village  is  growing  very  rapidly  at  the  present  time.  As 
in  other  towns,  where  gas  is  obtained,  the  first  industry  to  find  a  foot- 
hold is  glass  manufacture.  North  Btltimore  has  secured  three  glass 
making  establishments,  viz. :  The  Enterprise  Window  Glass  Works, 
with  a  capacity  of  ten  pots;  the  Zihlman  Flint  Glass  Works,  with  a 


THE   TRENTON    LIMESTONE. 

capacity  of  eight  pots,  and  the  North  Baltimore  Bottle  Works,  with  a 
capacity  of  ten  posts.  These  establishment  were  brought  in  by  the 
promise  of  gas  at  a  total  charge  of  five  dollars  each  per  annum  for  ten 
years,  and  by  donations  on  the  part  of  citizens  of  the  town  to  the  parties. 
Village  lots  were  given,  by  the  sale  of  which  $8,000  were  obtained  lor  the 
building  of  the  factory.  The  Bottle  Works  secured  $15.000  in  the  same 
way,  and  the  Zihlmau  Works,  $1  500.  None  of  these  factories  are  under 
any  restrnint  whatever  as  to  the  use  of  gap.  If  any  of  them  choose  to 
double  or  treble  its  plant,  there  would  be  no  power  to  inteifere  in  the 
protection  of  the  interests  of  the  town.  The  only  four-inch  gas  line  in 
the  town  goes  directly  to  the  Window  Glass  Works.  It  is  generally  run 
wide  open,  and  it  is  supposed  by  the  trustees  that  this  establishment  con- 
sumes as  much  gas  as  both  of  the  others  combined. 

There  ii-  also  a  large  factory  established  here  for  the  manufacture 
of  a  fine  grade  of  pressed  brick.  This  manufacture  depends  also  on  the 
gas  supplied  by  the  corporation  line.  The  clny  is  an  alluvial  deposit, 
quite  similar  to  that  which  is  turned  to  such  excellent  account  in  Findlay. 
The  North  Biltimore  Works  turn  out  a  very  superior  article,  that  meets 
with  a  ready  Hale  in  the  best  markets  at  $20  per  thousand. 

The  c<  rporation  has  bonded  itself  for  eight  thousand  dollars,  the 
proceeds  of  which  have  been  used  in  securing  gas  territory,  in  drilling 
wells,  and  in  piping  the  town.  It  is  now  proposed  to  increase  this 
indebtedness  by  the  issue  of  $25  000  of  additional  bonds.  With  even 
moderate  returns  from  the  factories  that  are  consuming  nearly  all  the 
gas,  the  village  might  begin  at  once  to  reduce  its  indebtedness.  The  rock 
pressure  is  prac  ically  the  same  as  that  of  Bloom  township  at  the  present 
time,  viz  ,  about  325  pounds.  It  is  reported  as  originally  4^0  pounds. 
This  wou'd  show  a  loss  of  thirty-two  per  cent,  of  pressure  to  date,  and  of 
course  a  much  larger  per  centage  of  loss  of  available  pressure. 

Pipe  Lines  of  the  Northwestern  Ohio  Natural  Gas  Company. 

In  the  account  of  the  gas  fields  of  Hancock  and  Wood  counties, 
mention  has  repeatedly  been  made  of  this  great  corporation,  in  which  the 
Standard  Oil  Company  holds  the  controlling  interest.  We  find  it  occupy- 
ing altogether  the  most  prominent  place  in  every  important  sub-division 
of  the  gas  fi  -Ids  of  the  counties  named  above.  It  owns  the  gas  rights  of 
not  less  than  thirty  thousand  acres,  and  its  lands  were  selected  from  what 
was  counted  the  best  territory  in  the  beginning  of  the  development. 
Much  of  this  territory  it  holds  in  large  and  continuous  blocks.  Bloom 
township,  for  example,  when  colored  to  show  the  areas  of  the  different 
gas  companies,  strikes  the  eye  as  almost  the  solid  possession  of  the  North- 
western Ohio  Company.  The  gas  wells  of  the  company  are  counted  by 


142  GEOLCGY   OF    OHIO. 

the  score.  Its  pipe  lines  in  Ohio  aggregate  nearly  two  hundred  miles,  and 
are  supplying  fuel,  and  to  some  extent,  light  and  power  to  a  large  popula- 
tion. Among  the  towns  which  they  reach  may  be  named  Toledo,  Fre- 
mont, Tiffin,  Fostoria,  Sandusky,  Clyde,  Bellevue,  and  a  number  of  small 
villages  that  are  situated  upon  or  near  their  main  lines.  These  systems 
probably  reach  150,000  people.  The  Company  has  also  constructed  a  line 
of  large  size  to  Detroit,  Michigan. 

All  the  outlays  required  by  the  best  experience  have  been  freely 
made  in  its  entire  plant,  and  its  service  throughout  meets  the  highest 
demands.  The  relations  of  the  great  corporation  to  the  landholders  with 
which  it  deals  are  in  the  main  amicable.  Those  who  leased  their  lands 
before  competition  sprung  up  in  regard  to  gas  territory  are  somewhat  dis- 
contented and  unhappy  because  they  are  receiving  so  much  smaller 
rentals  than  those  of  their  neighbors  who  waited  a  year  or  two  before 
leasing;  and  when  any  of  the  earlier  contracts  lapse,  large  advances  are 
insisted  upon  and  obtained  for  the  extension  of  the  leaseholds.  In  the 
opening  of  the  field  some  of  the  contracts  were  based  upon  Pennsylvania 
experience  and  their  terms  would  have  proved  very  unjust  to  the  land- 
holders. As  the  real  facts  have  appeared,  the  rentals  have  in  many  cases 
been  voluntarily  advanced  by  the  company.  Its  disbureements  in  the 
region  which  it  mainly  occupies  are  very  large,  and  the  farmers  are  deriv- 
ing great  advantage  from  this  new  use  of  their  lands. 

The  company  has  recognized  from  the  first  the  value  of  the  gas  which 
it  has  acquired,  and  has  carefully  avoided  all  unnecessary  consumption  of 
it.  While  the  city  of  Findlay,  for  example,  was  burning  millions  of  ieet 
in  a  day  in  vain  display  or  in  wanton  waste,  the  Northwestern  Com- 
pany was  locking  in  every  well  and  reducing  every  standpipe  along  its 
lines  to  the  smallest  possible  proportions.  The  difference  lay  in  the  fact 
that  one  company  understood  the  work  it  was  engaged  in,  while  the  other 
not  only  did  not  understand  but  proved  very  slow  to  learn. 

The  Northwestern  Company  has  taken  all  needful  care  of  its  gas 
territory  in  every  way.  It  has  avoided  alike  the  unnecessary  multiplica- 
tion of  wells  and  the  dangerous  over-draft  of  any.  -In  all  ordinary  cases, 
it  maintains  a  back  pressure  of  200  pounds  or  more  upon  its  wells. 

To  this  statement  there  are,  however,  numerous  important  exceptions 
that  have  arisen  within  the  last  year  or  two,  as  the  several  municipal  and 
other  corporations  that  are  engaged  in  piping  gas  have  extended  their 
lines  into  the  main  fields,  and  these  exceptions  are  at  the  present  time 
multiplying  rapidly.  The  Northwestern  Ohio  Company  gained  posses- 
sion at  an  early  day  of  a  very  large  acreage  in  such  centers  of  gas  produc- 
tion as  Bloom  township,  but  it  was  either  unable  to  acquire  or  it  did  not 
count  it  necessary  to  acquire  the  whole  of  these  gas  lands.  Occasional 


THE   TRENTON    LIMESTONE.  143 

farms  and  many  smaller  tracts  remained  outside  its  holdings.  Village 
corporations,  with  scores  of  owners  of  one  or  more  lots,  each  of  the  lots 
embracing  a  lew  thousand  square  feet,  were  also  left  out  of  the  account 
by  the  company.  Its  reasoning  seems  to  have  been  that  the  lands  which 
it  did  not  acquire,  being  widely  scattered  and  in  small  tracts  for  the  most 
part,  could  not  make  a  proper  basis  for  any  new  company  to  enter  upon 
the  business  of  carrying  the  gas  away  on  the  large  scale.  The  conclusion 
was  a  true  one,  whether  taken  by  the  company  or  not.  There  was  no 
proper  basis  left  in  connected  and  sufficiently  extended  acreage  for  under- 
taking such  line  a  of  work,  but  in  coming  to  the  conclusion  that  on  this 
account  no  one  would  undertake  it  the  company  was  reckoning  without 
its  host.  It  did  not  make  account  of  the  boards  of  municipal  gas  trustees, 
and  others  who,  following  their  example,  presently  appeared  upon  the 
scene  with  little  or  no  knowledge  of  the  business,  as  a  rule,  and  with 
public  money  to  expend,  ready  to  lease  or  purchase  any  tract  of 
land  large  enough  to  hold  a  derrick.  A  three  acre  or  a  five-acre  tract,  for 
example,  was  counted  by  such  parties  ample  for  a  well.  So,  indeed,  it 
would  be,  if  let  alone.  A  village  lot  would  be  just  as  advantageous  a 
location  for  a  well  as  a  quarter  section  of  land,  provided  other  parties  in 
interest  would  leave  the  well  drilled  upon  the  village  lot  the  same  acreage 
that  the  well  of  the  quarter  section  could  command.  But  it  is  certain 
that  the  other  parties  will  not  give  the  village  well  this  unpurchased 
advantage.  Where  one  such  well  appears,  a  second,  a  third  and  a  fourth 
are  likely  to  follow.  Even  then,  although  the  drilling  of  four  wells  in  the 
compass  of  an  acre  or  two  would  be  a  useless  waste  of  money,  if  each  well 
were  fceld  locked  back  to  a  proper  pressure  so  as  to  insure  the  safety  of  the 
immediate  territory,  no  other  evil  effect  would  follow.  The  vitality  of 
the  field  would  be  maintained  for  a  proportionately  short  time,  it  is  true, 
by  the  fourfold  draught  upon  it,  but  this  would  only  stand  for  rapid  utili- 
zation of  the  gas.  It  is,  however,  certain  that  in  such  a  case  as  is  repre- 
sented, every  well  will  not  be  locked  back  to  the  point  necessary  to  pro- 
tect the  field.  One  or  another  will  be  allowed  to  flow  unobstructed,  to 
make  sure  of  its  obtaining  its  proper  share  of  the  gas  while  it  is  going. 
Asa  consequence  of  this  treatment,  water  and  oil  are  invited  into  the  gas 
rock,  and  presently  the  entire  district  is  found  to  be  overrun  and  perhaps 
destroyed.  The  advent  of  new  companies  owning  only  small  tracts  leads 
thus  not  only  to  the  unnecessary  multiplication  of  wells,  but  to  the 
premature  exhaustion  of  entire  sections  of  the  gas  field.  It  is  even  con- 
ceivable that  one  company  having  large  and  undisturbed  holdings  else- 
where, will  consent  to,  or  even  deliberately  work  to  the  destruction  of 
gome  particular  sub-division  of  the  field  in  which  it  finds  too  many  or  too 
aggressive  neighbors. 


144 


GEOLCGY    OF    OHIO. 


The  most  important  section  of  the  company's  lines  is  the  double 
system  that  reaches  Toledo,  which  furnishes  the  domestic  fuel  of  the  city. 
Two  glass  furnaces  and  a  large  rolling-mill  are  also  attached  to  its  lines, 
and  in  addition  they  furnish  power  to  a  large  number  of  manufacturing 
establishments  of  various  grades.  The  company  began  the  "city  supply 
under  a  contract  running  for  three  years,  which  terminates  in  July,  1890. 
A  great  deal  of  controversy  has  been  carried  on  over  the  rates  now  in  force 
and  over  the  renewal  of  a  contract  for  another  term.  An  account  of  the 
gas  question  in  the  city  is  given  at  more  length  in  the  succeeding  section. 
The  glass  furnaces  are  supplied  with  fuel  and  power  at  the  rate  of  $30 
per  pot,  per  month.  One  of  the  establishments  is  a  ten-pot  window  glass 
furnace.  The  other  is  a  thirteen-pot  furnace  for  the  manufacture  of  the 
finest  varieties  of  cut  glass  made  in  the  United  States.  The  rates  to  these 
two  establishments  are  very  unequal,  as  both  pay  the  same  price  per  pot, 
while  a  window  glass  furnace  consumes  two-fifths  more  fuel  per  pot  than 
a  table  ware  furnace.  If  $30  is  a  proper  price  for  a  window  glass  furnace, 
$18  would  be  the  equivalent  for  a  table  ware  factory. 

It  is  almost  a  crime  against  a  community  to  consume  the  natural  gas 
that  can  be  made  tributary  to  it  in  rolling  mills.  The  daily  supply  for 
such  establishments  can  never  be  counted  by  less  than  millions  of  feet. 
It  is  greatly  to  be  hoped  that  the  Toledo  lines  will  cut  off  this  monstrous 
consumption  forthwith.  No  gas  field  yet  found  in  Ohio  can  be  ir  the  bur- 
den of  ii  on  working  for  any  long  term  of  years.  It  was  a  serious  mistake 
for  the  gas  companies  to  undertake  this  line  of  service.  The  gas  that  goes 
into  a  rolling  mill  every  day  would  supply  with  the  inexpressible  con- 
venience and  comfort  of  gaseous  fuel  1,000  to  5,000  families.  When  the 
interests  of  the  people  and  the  gas  companies  unite  as  they  do  in  shutting 
off  such  vandal-like  waste  of  natural  gas,  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  exclu- 
sion of  the  iron  mills  from  the  lines  will  soon  be  effected. 

The  Toledo  gas  rates  are  given  herewith. 

FOR  COOKING. 


From  November  1  to  May  1. 

From  May  1  to  November  1. 

Monthly 
charges. 

If  paid  before  the  10th. 

Monthly 
charges. 

If  paid  before  the  10th 

Discount. 

Charges. 

Discount. 

Charges. 

No.  7  Mixer.... 
No.  5  Mixer.... 
No  3  Mixer.... 

«2  78 
2  22 
1  67 

.28 
.22 
.17 

$2  50 
2  00 
1  50 

No.  7  Mixer... 
No.  5  Mixer... 
No.  3  Mixer... 

$1  66 

1  39 
83 

.16 
.14 
.08 

$1  50 
1  25 
75 

THE    TRENTON    LIMESTONE. 


FOR  LARGE  COOKING  BANGE. 


From  November  1  to  May  1. 

From  May  1  to  November  1. 

Monthly 
charges. 

If  paid  before  the  10th. 

Monthly 
charges. 

If  paid  before  the  10th. 

Discount. 

Charges. 

Discount. 

Charges. 

No.  9  Mixer.... 

83  33 

.33 

$3  00 

No.  9  Mixer... 

82  22 

.22 

82  00 

FOR  LAUNDRY. 

(When  gas  is  furnished  for  cook  stove  also.) 


Monthly 
charges. 

Discount. 

Charges. 

Monthly 
charges. 

Discount. 

Charges. 

No.  7  Mixer.... 

'  81  11 

.11 

81  00 

No.  5  Mixer... 

$    83 

.08 

$    75 

Manufacturers'  rates  for  fuel  shall  be  75  per  cent,  of  the  cost  of  coal,  and  no  more. 

FOR  HEATING. 

-A7o.  7  Mixer. 


Monthly 
charges. 

If  paid  before  the  10th. 

Annual 
charges. 

If  paid  before  the  10th 

Discount. 

Charges. 

Discount. 

Charges. 

1st  Mixer... 
2d  Mixer.... 
3d  Mixer.... 
4th  Mixer.. 
5th  Mixer.. 
6th  Mixer..  . 

$5  00 
4  44 
3  89 
3  33 
2  78 
2  22 

.50 
.44 
.39 
53 
.28 
.22 

84  50 
4  fO 
3  50 
3  00 
2  50 
2  00 

1st  Mixer.  
2d  Mixer  
3d  Mixer  
4th  Mixer  
5th  Mixer  
6th  Mixer  

830  00 
2fi  64 
23  34 
19  98 
16  68 
13  32 

83  00 
2  64 
2  34 
1  98 
1  68 
1  32 

527  CC 
24  00 
21  00 
18  OC 
15  00 
12  00 

No.  5  Mixer. 


Monthly 
charges. 

If  paid  before  the  10th. 

Annual 
charges. 

If  paid  before  the  10th. 

Discount. 

Charges. 

Discount. 

Charges. 

1st  Mixer.  . 
2d  Mixer.... 
3d  Mixer.... 
4th  Mixer.. 
5th  Mixer.. 
6th  Mixer.. 

S3  89 
3  33 
2  78 
2  22 
1  66 
1  39 

.39 
.33 
.28 
.22 
.16 
.14 

83  50 
3  00 
2  50 
2  0« 
1  50 
1  25 

1st  Mixer  
2d  Mixer  
3d  Mixer  
4th  Mixer  
5th  Mixer  
6th  Mixer  

$23  34 
19  98 
16  68 
13  32 
9  96 
8  34 

82  34 
1  98 
1  58 
1  32 
% 
84 

821  00 
18  00 
15  00 
12  00 
9  00 
7  50 

10 


G. 


146 


GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO. 


No.  3  Mixer. 
(For  heating  small  rooms,  and  for  special  purposes.) 


Monthly  charges. 

If  paid  before  the  10th. 

Discount. 

Charges. 

1st  Mixer           

$222 
1  66 

32 
'   .16 

82  00 
1  50 

2d  Mixer  

FURNACES. 


If  paid  before  the  10th. 

Annual  contracts. 

Monthly 

charges. 

Discount 

Charges. 

Annual 
charges. 

Discount. 

Charges. 

"A"  Mixer,  21-inch  fire  pot  

$6  95 

$    70 

8625 

$41  70 

$420 

$37  50 

«B"  Mixer,  24-inch  fire  pot  

8  66 

86 

7  80 

51  96 

5  16 

46  80 

"C"  Mixer,  26-inch  fire  pot  

9  44 

94 

8  50 

56  64 

5  64 

51  00 

"D"  Mixer,  28  inch  fire  pot  

10  00 

1  00 

9  0  ) 

60  00 

6  00 

54  00 

"E"  Mixer,  30-ii.ch  fire  pot  

11  66 

1  16 

10  50 

69  96 

6  96 

63  00 

"F"  Mixer,  35-inch  fire  pot  

13  89 

1  39 

12  50 

83  34 

8  34 

7500 

The  Toledo  Pipe  Line. 

The  city  of  Toledo  has  been  engaged  for  the  last  two  years  in  by  far 
the  largest  undertaking  in  connection  with  natural  gas  of  any  municipal 
corporation  in  the  State,  and,  although  the  work  upon  which  it  has 
entered,  has  not  yet  been  completed,  its  importance  demands  that  an  ac- 
count of  the  action  already  taken,  shall  be  given  in  this  chapter. 

In  1887  natural  gas  from  the  Wood  and  Hancock  county  fields  was 
introduced  into  Toledo  by  two  companies,  known  respectively  as  the 
Northwestern  Ohio  Natural  Gas  Company,  and  the  Toledo  Natural  Gas 
Company.  In  the  former,  leading  representatives  of  the  Standard  Oil 
Company  were  known  to  hold  a  controlling  interest.  It  was  given  out  at 
first  that  the  second  company  was  independent  of  the  great  corporation, 
and  that  its  presence  in  Toledo  would  insure  competition  in  gas  rates ;  but 
it  soon  became  apparent  that  it  was  not  likely  to  bring  about  such  a  result. 
The  two  companies  evidently  held  the  same  views  as  to  the  business 
which  they  had  in  hand,  and  during  the  last  year  the  second  company 
has  been  formally  merged  in  the  first. 

The  maximum  rate  that  the  companies  could  charge  for  gas  in  the 
city  was  fixed  by  the  common  council,  after  considerable  discussion,  for  a 
period  of  three  years.  The  rates  were  not  in  excess  of  those  prevailing  in 
other  towns  of  the  country  which  obtain  their  supplies  of  gas  from  fields 
twenty  or  more  miles  distant.  From  a  table  published  in  the  American 
Manufacturer,  December  6,  1889,  the  following  data  are  taken : 


THE    TRENTON    LIMESTONE.  147 

Annual  Rates  for  Cook  Stoves. 

(1)  Toledo,  (5)  Youngstown, 

(2)  Fremont,  (6)  Meadville,  Pa., 

(3)  Tiffin,  (7)  Jamestown,  N.  Y., 

(4)  Titusville,  Pa.,  (8)  Erie,  Pa. 

(1)  (2)  (3)  (4)  (5)  (6)  (7)  (8) 

$19.50        $19.00        $16.00        $24.00        $25.00        $32.00        $28.30        $31.50 

Annual  Mates  for  Heating  Stoves — a  single  heater  being  employed. 

(1)  (2)  (3)  (4)  (5)  (6)  (7)  (8) 

$21.00        §16.00        $16.20        $24.00        $18.00        $21.00        $23.40        $26.45 

The  rate  at  Toledo  on  cook  stoves  was  the  result  of  a  compromise, 
$18  being  named  by  one  company  and  $21  by  the  other.  Considerable 
reductions  were  allowed  when  more  than  one  heater  was  employed,  and 
different  rates  were  charged  also  for  mixers  of  different  sizes. 

The  years  1887  and  1888  marked  great  activity  in  the  towns  situated 
in  or  near  to  the  gas  fields.  Such  towns,  were,  during  this  time,  holding 
out  potent  inducements  to  manufacturers  to  locate  in  them,  especially  by 
the  offer  of  free  fuel,  and  many  of  these  towns  were  securing  the  establish- 
ment of  glass  factories,  iron  mills  and  other  like  enterprises.  Findlay, 
Bowling  Green,  Fostoria,  and  later  Tiffin,  all  attracted  large  and  important 
manufactures  on  the  basis  named.  These  towns  were  consequently 
making  rapid  gains  in  population  and  in  volume  of  trade,  and  from  some 
points  of  view  they  could  be  counted  as  gaining  at  the  expense  of  Toledo. 
With  these  towns  that  were  able  to  offer  free  fuel,  Toledo  could  not  com- 
pete. The  companies  above  named  had  brought  natural  gas  into  the  city, 
it  is  true;  but  they  had  brought  it  in  to  turn  it  into  money,  and  they  were 
not  in  any  way  directly  interested  in  building  up  the  town,  and  least  of 
all  in  creating  the  state  of  speculative  excitement,  called  a  "  boom,"  so 
dear  to  the  heart  of  the  real  estate  dealer.  They  had  already  learned  that 
by  far  the  largest  returns  for  natural  gas  were  to  be  derived  from  its  use  in 
domestic  supply,  and  they  were  unwilling  to  appropriate  any  large  part  of 
the  production  of  their  lines  to  great  factories  that  would  not  expect  to 
pay  more  than  a  quarter  or  a  tenth  of  what  the  former  use  would  bring  to 
them;  if,  indeed,  such  establishments  did  not  expect  the  gas  to  be  fur- 
nished without  any  charge,  whatever.  In  other  words,  the  companies 
preferred  to  make  the  money  out  of  the  gas  themselves,  rather  than  to 
turn  it  over  with  scanty  advantage  to  themselves,  to  real  estate  dealers  and 
manufacturers  to  make  money  out  of.  The  inferior  position  of  Toledo,  as 
contrasted  with  the  towns  already  named  in  these  respects,  became  a 
source  of  annoyance  and  irritation  to  many  of  her  active  business*  men. 


148  GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO. 

and  during  the  winter  of  1887  and  1888,  more  than  six  thousand  names 
were  attached  to  a  petition  sent  from  Toledo  to  the  State  Legislature,  to 
obtain  authority  for  the  city  to  construct  a  gas  line  from  the  .southern 
fields  to  its  limits.  A  vigorous  opposition  to  this  project  was,  howe\7er, 
made  at  this  time  by  many  citizens. 

The  dissatisfaction  with  the  situation  grew  rapidly,  however,  during 
the  subsequent  year,  and  it  had  gathered  such  force  that  early  in  the  session 
of  1889,  the  legislature  was  easily  prevailed  upon  to  pass  an  enabling  act, 
authorizing  the  city  to  provide  for  a  pipe  line  to  the  gas  fields. 

The  bill  was  passed  by  the  House  of  Representatives  almost  unani- 
mously, and  by  the  Senate  by  a  vote  of  twenty-three  to  eleven,  the  vote  of 
the  last  body  being  taken  after  a  committee  of  its  members  had  visited 
Toledo  and  had  studied  the  situation  on  the  ground.  It  became  a  law  on 
January  22,  1889.  This  action  of  the  legislature  is  said  to  have  been 
vigorously  opposed  by  the  gas  companies.  A  provision  was  inserted  in 
the  bill  requiring  ratification  of  the  action  by  a  three-fourths  vote  of  the 
citizens.  At  the  election  in  April,  1889,  after  an  energetic  and  spirited 
canvass,,  the  vote  in  favor  of  the  ftity  line  was  7,002,  an^l  the  vote  in  oppo- 
sition 4,199.  These  figures  show  more  than  62  per  cent,  in  favor  of  the 
bill,  and  less  than  38  per  cent,  opposed  to  it. 

The  governor  forthwith  appointed  a  board  of  five  gas  trustees,  who 
entered  upon  their  duties  in  April,  1889,  the  common  council  unani- 
mously authorizing  the  sale  of  $75,000  of  the  bonds  to  enable  them  to  be- 
gin their  active  work.  The  advertisement  of  the  sale  of  these  bonds  was 
the  signal  for  the  beginning  of  open  resistance  on  the  part  of  the  North- 
Avestern  Ohio  Natural  Gas  Company.  Application  was  at  once  made  in 
the  United  States  Circuit  Court  of  the  northern  district  of  Ohio,  for  an 
injunction  against  the  sale  of  the  bonds.  The  case  was  heard  in  chambers 
at  Nashville,  Tennessee,  Judge  Howell  E.  Jackson  presiding.  A  strong 
and  sweeping  decision  was  given  by  Judge  Jackson  in  favor  of  the  city, 
affirming  the  full  right  of  municipalities  to  undertake  work  of  the  charac- 
ter proposed. 

The  first  issue  of  bonds  to  the  amount  of  $75,000,  was  sold  in  June, 
1889,  and  the  trustees  at  once  proceeded  to  procure  gas  territory  in  the 
Hancock  and  Wood  county  gas  fields.  The  Allen  township  district  was 
at  this  time  the  most  promising  subdivision  of  the  field,  and  here  the  chief 
investments  of  the  Toledo  trustees  were  made,  though  tracts  were  leased 
along  their  proposed  pipe  line,  for  a  distance  of  nine  miles  from  north  to 
south.  The  acreage  that  they  secured  was  comparatively  small,  aggregat- 
ing not  more  than  five  or  six  hundred  acres ;  but  the  separate  tracts  were 
located  at  the  very  centers  of  the  best  production. 

In  Allen  township  contracts  of  a  peculiar  kind  in  this  line  of  business- 


THE  TRENTON  LIMESTONE.  149 

were  entered  into  with  certain  parties  owning  gas  lands.  One  company, 
organized  under  the  designation  of  The  Stuarts ville  Land  Association, 
entered  into  a  contract  to  furnish  fifty  million  feet  of  gas  per  day  from 
completed  wells,  the  wells  to  be  so  located  that  each  should  have  ten  acres 
tributary  to  it.  For  every  million  feet  of  gas  produced,  the  company  was 
to  receive  one  thousand  dollars.  The  company  owned  or  controlled  about 
150  acres.  On  one  tract  of  fifty-three  acres  six  wells  were  drilled.  The 
contract  was  fulfilled  and  the  aggregate  specified  amount  was  turned  over 
to  the  trustees  in  completed  wells.  Three  other  wells  which  were  drilled 
by  J.  R.  Ware,  Esq.,  on  a  fifteen-acre  tract,  near  Stuartsville,  proved  the 
largest  of  the  whole  number  secured  by  the  city.  Their  aggregate  daily 
volume  was  32,465,560  feet,  but  because  of  the  smaller  acreage  going  with 
each  well,  onl^y  $750  per  1,000,000  feet  was  paid.  Mr.  Ware  received  for 
the  combined  production  over  $24,000.  Still  other  wells  were  drilled  on 
village  lots.  In  their  first  annual  report,  dated  December  31,  1889,  the  gas 
trustees  gave  a  list  of  twenty-four  wells  that  the  city  now  owns,  including 
those  already  named,  the  daily  capacity  of  which  is  given  as  154,880,054 
cubic  feet.  When  it  became  evident  that  the  city  of  Toledo  was  to  enter 
the  gas  fields  as  a  competitor  of  the  companies  already  established  there, 
the  price  of  gas  territory  was  rapidly  advanced.  The  Findlay  gas  trustees 
had  been  driven  out  of  their  own  township  by  the  exhaustion  of  the  home 
supply  and  began  leasing  lands  in  the  nearest  available  territory,  viz.,  in 
Allen,  Cass  and  Marion  townships.  For  single  farms  they  are  now  pay- 
ing as  high  an  annual  rental  as  $20  per  acre.  The  Northwestern  Ohio 
Company,  in  like  manner,  sought  to  increase  and  consolidate  its  gas  lands, 
and  it  did  not  hesitate  to  advance  rentals  to  many  times  what  they  had 
previously  been.  The  Toledo  trustees  were  obliged  to  make  all  their  leases 
and  purchases  under  these  conditions. 

During  the  year  the  balance  of  the  gas  bonds,  viz.,  $675,000,  was  placed 
upon  the  market.  Of  this  amount  a  hundred  thousand  dollars  was  taken 
by  citizens  of  Toledo,  but  no  bids  were  obtained  from  the  moneyed  centers, 
by  which  it  was  expected  that  the  bonds  would  all  be  promptly  absorbed. 
The  sales  up  to  the  present  date  are  all  reported  in  the  two  items  already 
^iven.  The  balance  of  the  bonds,  $575,000,  remain  unsold.  The  friends 
of  the  pipe  line  project  attribute  the  lack  of  bids  to  the  efforts  of  the  North- 
western Ohio  Gas  Company  and  its  natural  friends  and  allies,  the  Standard 
Ohio  Company,  by  whom  the  money  markets  were  prejudiced  against  the 
bonds.  There  seems  no  reason  to  doubt  that  this  charge  is  founded  in 
fact.  Through  the  agency  of  the  Northwestern  Ohio  Company,  suit  was 
afterward  brought  in  the  United  States  Courts,  although  the  injunction 
had  been  denied,  and  a  hearing  was  given  to  the  case  upon  its  merits.  A 
decision  was  rendered  in  January,  1890,  again  in  favor  of  the  validity  of 


I5O  GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO 

the  action  entered  upon  by  the  city.  The  case  is  still,  however,  in  court, 
and  is  probably  destined  to  reach  the  highest  tribunal  of  the  United  States 
for  adjudication.  The  delay  has,  however,  worked  against  the  city  and 
has  served  the  opposing  interests,  almost  as  well  as- success  in  court  would 
have  done,  as  will  be  hereafter  shown. 

The  gas  trustees  have  come  into  possession,  as  will  be  seen,  of  some- 
what more  than  $175,000,  by  the  sale  of  the  bonds  and  by  accumulation 
of  premiums.  For  gas  territory  and  wells  they  have  expended  about 
$120,000,  and  for  other  purposes  somewhat  more  than  $30,000,  leaving 
about  $45,000,  which  has  recently  been  applied  to  the  construction  of  a 
pipe  line  from  the  gas  fields,  as  far  as  the  money  would  go.  The  line  as 
laid  begins  in  the  northwest  quarter  of  section  30,  Allen  township.  As 
projected,  it  is  to  consist  of  twenty-nine  miles  of  ten-inch,  wrought  iron, 
screw-joint  pipe,  opening  into  about  eight  miles  of  twelve-inch  wrought 
iron  pipe.  Two  eight-inch  wrought  iron  pipes  of  extra  strength  are  to  be 
laid  across  and  underneath  the  Maumee  River.  The  field  connections  are 
to  be  made  by  three,  four  ami  .six-inch  wrought  iron  pipes.  All  of  the 
materials  it  is  designed  shall  be  of  the  best.  A  few  miles  of  the  main 
line  have  been  already  laid,  but  the  work  is  at  present  arrested  for  the 
want  of  available  funds  with  which  to  continue  it.  There  seems  to  be  no 
present  probability  that  the  line  can  be  completed  during  the  current  year. 

Meanwhile,  the  portions  of  the  field  in  which  the  best  production  of 
the  Toledo  wells  is  to  be  found,  are  being  rapidly  depleted  of  their  gas. 
The  Findlay  trustees  are  obliged  to  draw  hard  upon  the  same  region  in 
order  to  meet  the  large  demand  which  their  factories  make.  The  North- 
western Ohio  Company  sees  to  it  that  a  well  of  its  own  is  drilled  close  ta 
every  well  of  the  Toledo  Company.  If  the  latter  locates  a  well  on  a  village 
lot,  another  lot  near  by  is  made  to  give  standing  ground  for  a  new  derrick, 
and  pipe  line  connections  are  extended  to  every  well  as  soon  as  it  is  com- 
pleted. In  this  respect,  the  Northwestern  Company  has  an  overwhelming 
advantage.  It  can  fill  its  lines  from  the  new  wells  and  shut  back  the  pro- 
tected portions  of  the  field.  The  rock  pressure  in  the  Allen  township  field 
has  fallen  fully  100  pounds  during  the  last  ten  months  ;  and  all  the  wells, 
whether  worked,  or  locked  in,  have  fallen  alike.  The  gas  rock  is  also  being 
rapidly  overrun  with  oil  to  a  dangerous  extent.  Shrinkage  in  volume 
accompanies  the  fall  of  rock  pressure.  One  of  the  large  wells  of  the  Find- 
lay  trustees,  in  the  Stuartsville  field,  was  re-measured  in  June,  1890,  and 
it  was  found  to  have  lost,  without  use,  fully  40  per  cent,  of  the  volume 
that  it  showed  in  August,  1889.  The  figures  given  above  for  the  Toledo 
production  probably  need  to  be  divided  by  two  or  by  even  a  larger  number 
to  express  the  present  volume.  It  is  certain  that  the  rock  pressure  has 
been  lessened  more  than  25  per  cent,  within  the  year,  and  all  this  without 


THE    TRENTON    LIMESTONE.  15 1 

any  use  of  the  wells  owned  by  the  city  trustees.  If  the  line  should  reach 
the  field  this  fall,  it  would  find  it  in  a  state  of  incipient  exhaustion,  and 
if  it  does  not  reach  the  field  until  1891,  in  case  the  decline  that  has  been 
in  steady  progress  for  the  last  year  shall  be  kept  up  during  the  coming  winter, 
it  will  find  no  dry  gas  to  take  away.  At  least,  it  does  not  now  seem  possible 
that  dry  gas  in  large  enough  quantity  for  manufacturing  supplies  can  be 
found  in  the  Stuartsville  field  for  more  than  one,  or  at  most  two  winters, 
especially  if  severe  weather  occurs;  Even  if  no  delay  had  been  experienced 
in  the  construction  of  the  pipe  line,  the  production  reported  in  these 
figures  of  the  trustees  would  have  furnished  but  a  short-lived  supply,  by 
reason  of  the  crowding  of  the  wells.  More  than  one-fifth  of  the  entire 
amount  reported  is  derived  from  the  three  Ware  wells,  to  which,  as  will 
be  remembered,  but  fifteen  acres  of  land  are  tributary.  In  a  gas  rock  of 
the  character  shown  in  the  Allen  township  field,  fifty  acres  would  be  a 
small  enough  assignment  of  territory  for  a  single  well. 

The  controversy  has  engendered  bitter  feeling,  and  has  led  to  more 
or  less  acrimonious  discussion  throughout  the  city  and  adjacent  commu- 
nities. There  is  probably  a  considerable  number' of  the  citizens,  though  a 
decided  minority,  that  distrust  the  policy  on  which  the  city  has  entered. 
But  some  of  this  class  appear  to  have  laid  aside  their  opposition  through 
resentment  at  the  depreciation  of  the  credit  of  the  city,  which  has  been 
brought  about  by  the  Northwestern  Gas  Company  in  the  course  of  the 
struggle. 

The  Gas  Company  takes  the  ground  that,  after  being  encouraged, 
and  authorized  by  the  people  of  Toledo  through  their  regularly  constituted 
representatives  to  bring  the  much-coveted  fuel  into  the  city,  and  after  hav- 
ing done  this  by  an  outlay  of  more  than  a  million  dollars  on  its  part,  its 
business  ought  not  to  be  destroyed  by  the  action  of  the  city  itself. 

It  further  holds  that  after  having  taken  the  only  proper  way  to  pro- 
vide a  basis  for  large  pipe  lines,  by  securing  at  heavy  outlay  large  and  con- 
tinuous tracts  of  gas  lands,  it  is  not  right  for  another  company  to  come  in 
and  establish  a  line  on  the  mere  odds  and  ends  of  land  that  are  left  over 
from  such  occupation.  It  demonstrates  that  the  second  company  has  no 
proper  basis  when  it  empties  the  wells  that  this  company  has  drilled  with- 
out going  off  of  its  own  ground. 

(4)  Portage  and  Liberty  Townships. — The  petroliferous  production  of 
these  two  townships  takes  the  form  of  oil  rather  than  gas  at  the  present 
time.  In  fact,  neither  of  these  areas  really  deserves  the  name  of  gas 
territory.  In  the  earlier  stages  of  the  development,  when  gas  alone  was 
valued  and  the  discovery  of  oil  was  counted  ill-fortune,  a  few  sections 
along'  the  borders  of  these  two  townships  were  considered  available  for 
the  supply  of  the  pipe  lines  that  were  being  extended  across  them.  But 


152  GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO. 

these  sections  never  produced  dry  gas  constantly  for  any  great  lengt\x  o 
time.  Oil  and  water  were  almost  the  invariable  accompaniments  of  the 
gas  at  an  early  stage  in  these  wells.  The  best  of  the  territory  was  the 
extreme  northwesterly  sections  of  Portage  township.  The  tract  of  Water- 
lime  or  Lower  Helderberg  rocks,  in  which  the  valley  of  the  Portage  is 
now  established,  indicates  a  low  level  of  the  underlying  Trenton,  and  all 
the  facts  of  the  development  correspond  to  these  indications  of  the 
surface  geology.  The  most  productive  and  best  protected  territory  of  the 
township  is  found  as  the  rock  rises  from  the  swamp  toward  the  north- 
ward. The  gas  wells  of  this  territory  have  seldom  ranged  above  one 
million  feet  in  daily  capacity.  Several  of  them  have  showed  fair 
vitality,  responding  to  a  heavy  and  steady  drain  for  two  years  or  more. 
They  were  not  adequate,  however,  to  the  service  asked  of  them,  and  both 
volume  and  pressure  have  fallen  to  such  a  point  that  they  are  no  longer 
greatly  valued. 

(5)  Center  and  Plain  Townships. — Along  the  boundaries  of  these  two 
townships,  as  in  the  case  last  described,  a  light  production  of  gas  was 
found  in  the  early  history  of  the  field.  The  wells  showed  an  original 
pressure  of  about  450  pounds,  but  their  volumes  were  never  large.  A 
history  of  this  district  is  found  in  Volume  VI.  Nearly  all  the  gas  it  has 
produced  has  been  utilized  by  the  village  of  Bowling  Green,  and  the 
further  account  of  this  part  of  the  field  can  best  be  given  in  connection 
with  the  history  of  the  gas  supply  of  this  town. 

Bowling  Green. — There  are  two  companies  bringing  gas  into  Bowling 
Green,  one  a  public,  and  the  other  a  private  corporation.  The  municipal 
corporation,  through  a  board  of  gas  trustees,  has  leased  lands,  drilled 
wells,  laid  pipe  lines,  and  undertaken  to  supply  the  glass  factories  and 
other  manufacturing  enterprises  of  the  town  with  fuel.  The  domestic 
supply,  on  the  other  hand,  has  been  furnished  from  the  first  by  the 
private  company.  The  corporation  trustees  have  already  expended  fifty 
thousand  dollars  in  their  work.  Five  glass  factories  have  been  brought 
in  to  depend  on  the  supply  of  gas  which  the  corporation  offered,  without 
charge,  for  five  years,  or  rather  at  the  nominal  charge  of  five  dollars  per 
annum  for  each  factory.  The  names  and  lines  of  production  of  the  glass 
factories  are  as  follows :  Canastota  Glass  Company,  window  glass,  twenty 
pots ;  Buckeye  Novelty  Glass  Company,  table  ware,  six  pots,  and  one 
tank  of  the  same  capacity,  equals  twelve  pots ;  Ly thgo  Glass  Company, 
table  ware,  fruit  jars,  etc.,  six  pots;  Crystal  Glass  Company,  table  ware, 
bottles,  etc.,  ten  pots;  Safe  Glass  Company,  bottles,  jars,  etc.,  one  tank, 
equals  eight  pots;  total,  window  glass,  twenty  pots  ;  table  ware,  thirty-six 
pots.  These  factories  require  for  their  daily  supply  1,400,000  cubic  feet  of 
gas  for  the  window  glass  plant,  and  for  the  table  ware,  four  plants,  1,800,- 


THE   TRENTON    LIMESTONE.  153 

000  feet,  or  a  total  supply  of  3,200,000  feet  per  day.  To  meet  this  demand, 
the  trustees  have  drilled  in  all  twelve  wells  in  the  territory  which  they 
had  secured,  mainly  in  the  northern  sections  of  Portage  township.  Nine 
of  these  wells  are  still  in  the  line,  but  three  have  completely  failed.  None 
of  these  wells  exceeded  in  daily  volume  one  million  feet  per  day  when 
they  were  first  drilled ;  their  best  average  would  probably  not  have  greatly 
exceeded  five  hundred  thousand  feet.  The  field  did  not  prove  adequate 
to  a  demand  of  this  character,  and  consequently  the  wells  were  over- 
drawn and  their  rock  pressure  and  volume  began  to  decline  to  an  alarm- 
ing extent  in  the  winter  of  1888  and  1889.  The  decline  has  continued 
without  abatement  or  reduction  of  rate  up  to  the  present  time,  the  last 
registration  of  the  gauges  of  the  company  showing  but  100  pounds  in  the 
wells. 

During  the  past  year,  in  the  vain  attempt  to  meet  the  heavy  demand 
that  had  been  already  established,  the  wells  have  been  allowed  to  flow 
without  any  back  pressure,  and  consequently  they  have  been  invaded  by 
oil  and  water  to  a  troublesome,  or  even  to  a  fatal  degree.  The  trustees  see 
no  promise  in  drilling  new  wells  to  relieve  the  situation,  for  the  reason 
that  the  later  wells,  when  brought  in,  show  the  same  exhausted  condition 
of  the  gas  rock  as  that  which  the  earlier  wells  show.  In  other  words, 
the  decline  of  their  gas  territory  affects  the  entire  region  which  the  leases 
of  the  company  cover.  During  the  last  winter  the  smaller  glass  works 
that  were  nearest  the  field  secured  a  moderate  supply  of  gas  for  them- 
selves, but  the  larger  factories  that  happened  to  be  built  to  the  northward 
of  the  town  were  subject  to  a  constantly  increasing  shortage  of  fuel,  until 
at  last  their  fires  went  out  altogether.  The  trustees  have  endeavored  to 
induce  their  neighbors  of  the  private  gas  company,  and  also  the  North- 
western Ohio  Gas  Company,  whose  line  passes  near  the  corporation 
boundary,  to  undertake  the  supply  of  these  factories  in  their  place ;  but 
neither  company  seems  disposed  to  respond  to  the  call,  and  the  largest 
glass  company  is  now  planning  removal  to  some  other  location.  These 
works  were  destroyed  by  fire  in  the  early  part  of  1889,  but  were  re-built 
by  a  contribution  of  $25,000,  raised  by  the  citizens.  They  had  previously 
received  a  considerable  donation  from  the  town  in  the  shape  of  land,  in 
addition  to  fuel,  without  charge. 

The  Bowling  Green  Natural  Gas  Company,  the  private  corporation 
above  referred  to,  has  maintained  a  good  supply  of  gas  for  domestic  fuel 
through  the  town  during  the  last  two  years.  The  lands  of  this  company 
interlock,  to  a  considerable  extent,  with  the  lands  of  the  municipal  cor- 
poration, but  it  has  been  possible  for  it  to  take  proper  care  of  its  own 
wells,  and  accordingly  they  are  in  much  better  condition  than  those  last 
described.  The  rock  pressure  has,  however,  declined  in  all  of  them,  so 


154  GEOLOGY    OF     OHIO. 

that  it  nowhere  registers  above  170  pounds  at  present.  The  last  of  the 
wells  to  be  drilled,  which  was  completed  in  the  fall  of  1889,  on  compara- 
tively fresh  territory,  showed  an  initial  pressure  of  190  pounds.  The 
gas  itself  shows  the  incipient  exhaustion  of  the  field.  It  is  less  lively 
than  at  first,  from  the  constant  invasion  of  oil.  The  mixers  become 
clogged  and  its  flow  is  obstructed  in  ordinary  use. 

The  company  has  become  satisfied  that  if  it  would  maintain  its 
supply,  it  must  acquire  new  and  more  productive  territory,  for  its  home 
sources  are  practically  exhausted.  It  has,  accordingly,  bought  land  and  gas 
rights  to  the  extent  of  $36,000  in  Bloom  and  Henry  townships,  to  the 
south  of  the  Portage  swamp,  already  described,  and  it  proposes  to  extend 
its  lines  to  this  field.  The  wells  that  are  being  drilled  there  at  the  present 
time  find'  a  rock  pressure  of  325  to  330  pounds.  If  this  field,  with  this 
pressure,  is  judiciously  treated,  it  ought  to  prolong  the  life  of  the  supply 
by  several  years. 

Lime  burning  by  natural  gas  has  been  carried  on  in  a  large  way  at 
Bowling  Green  and  at  Portage  for  the  last  three  years,  and  probably  with 
as  much  success  as  at  any  point  in  the  field.  The  limestone  that  makes 
the  eastern  boundary  of  the  corporation  offers  the  best  of  facilities  for 
obtaining  the  rock.  The  quality  of  the  rock  is  high,  its  composition 
showing  it  to  be  an  almost  chemically  pure  dolomite,  like  most  of  the 
Niagara  limestone  of  northern  Ohio.  All  the  difficulties  experienced  in 
the  first  attempts  to  manufacture  lime  by  the  use  of  gas  as  a  fuel  have 
one  by  one  been  overbcome.  The  lime  burned  has  been  mainly  depend- 
ent on  the  wells  of  the  private  company,  rather  than  on  the  line  of  the 
municipal  corporation.  The  products  of  these  quarries  and  kilns  is" 
highly  valued  by  the  glass  manufacturers  of  the  new  field,  as  well  as  by 
those  of  Pennsylvania  and  eastern  Ohio.  For  this  use  the  raw  stone  is 
ground,  in  part,  and  in  part  the  lime  itself  is  ground,  while  still  other 
manufacturers  prefer  to  use  the  lime  in  bulk.  The  four  kilns  of  this  dis- 
trict average  in  daily  production  from  75  to  100  barrels  each.  By 
anemometer  measurements,  taken  one  year  ago,  it  was  found  that  each 
kiln  consumed  from  150  to  175  thousand  feet  of  gas  in  the  production  of  a 
hundred  barrels  of  lime,  or  1,500  to  1,750  cubic  feet  in  burning  one  barrel 
of  lime.  The  price  charged  for  the  fuel  used  in  burning  the  lime  is  three 
cents  per  barrel.  The  cost  of  fuel,  if  wood  were  used,  even  at  the 
cheap  rate  of  $1.25  per  cord,  at  which  it  can  be  furnished  in  Bowling 
Green,  would  be  at  least  twice  the  price  which  is  paid  for  the  gas.  The 
magnesian  lime  of  Bowling  Green  has  also  been  brought  into  requisition 
for  paper  factories  and  pulp  works  to  some  extent.  Both  of  thgse  lines  of 
consumption  have  heretofore  been  directed  entirely  to  the  hotter  lirnee 
derived  from  the  true  carbonates. 


THE  TRENTON  LIMESTONE.  155 

In  the  history  of  Bowling  Green  we  can  see  the  stages  through  which 
all  the  dther  towns  that  have  introduced  gas,  as  a  fuel,  must  each  in  its 
turn  expect  to  pass.  The  failure  of  the  supply  in  Bowling  Green  has 
come  sooner  than  was  anticipated  by  any  one,  but  the  several  stages  have, 
after  all,  been  distinctly  marked.  In  1887  the  rock  pressure  was  450 
pounds;  in  1888,  375  to  390  pounds;  in  1889,  February,  290  pounds;  in 
1890,  May,  in  the  gas  company's  wells,  170  pounds ;  in  1890,  May,  in  the 
gas  trustees'  wells,  100  pounds.  The  volume  has  given  out  in  apparently 
the  same  proportion.  The  remnant  of  the  gas  of  the  field  will  doubtless 
be  highly  valued,  and  domestic  fuel  in  considerable  amount  can  still  be 
supplied  by  it,  but  the  larger  uses  are  apparently  already  at  an  end. 

(6)  Remaining    Townships. — In    Middleton  and   Perrysburg  town- 
ships small  quantities  of  gas  have  been  found  in  the  Trenton,  just 
enough  to  lure  on  the  companies  drilling  the  wells  to  repeated  trials.     No 
value  has  thus  far  been  derived  from  the  supply.     Gas  is,  of  course,  found 
in  considerable  quantity  in  association  with  the  oil  of  Montgomery  and 
Freedom  townships,  but  no  store  has  been  found  separate  and  distinct 
from  the  oil.     These  occurrences  will,  therefore,  best  be  treated  under  a 
subsequent  head. 

(7)  The    Waterville   Gas  Field. — No  better  point  will  be  found  in 
which  to  give  a  brief  history  of  the  Waterville  gas  field  than  the  present. 
Although  it  belongs  in  an  adjoining  county,  all  the  approaches  to  the 

.field  were  made  through  the  northern  townships  of  Wood.  Its  develop- 
ment was  begun  by  parties  representing  Maumee  interests.  An  effort 
was  made  to  establish  a  glass  plant  here,  and  in  the  search  for  an  adequate 
supply  of  fuel  wells  were  drilled  in  the  river  valley,  at  intervals,  several 
miles  above  the  town.  They  were  finally  extended  to  the  village  limits 
of  Waterville.  The  corporation  of  Maumee  was  at  last  led,  in  1887,  to 
purchase  the  territory  and  wells  that  had  already  been  tested,  to  lay  a 
pipe  line,  and  to  undertake  the  supply  of  its  population  with  fuel.  Eight 
wells  have  been  drilled  in  all,  in  this  subdivision  of  the  field.  The  gas 
was  brought  in  to  Maumee  by  five  miles  of  four-inch  pipe,  opening  into 
one  mile  of  six-inch  pipe.  When  the  work  was  begun  the  supply  was 
counted  ample  for  the  town,  but  it  proved  insufficient  when  less  than  500 
stoves  had  been  attached  to  it ;  and  in  the  course  of  the  first  year  of  its 
use  the  supply  was  found  to  be  overtaxed  when  300  stoves  were  depend- 
ent on  it.  The  wells  of  the  corporation  were  measured  in  March,  1889, 
with  the  following  result : 


156  GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO. 

Cobb  well,  No.  2 59,227  cubic  feet  per  day. 

"          "          3 15,780  "  " 

"          4 46,209 

Hutchinson  well V73,440 

Haskins  well 70,560 

Ballou  well,  No  1 30,672 

"  "      2  60,768 

Starkweather  well 73,440 

Total  production 430,000  "  " 

These  wells  found  the  Trenton  at  a  fairly  favorable  depth,  viz.,  from 
1,125  to  1,150  feet,  but  the  rock  was  lacking  in  porosity.  The  closed  pres- 
sure of  the  wells  was  never  reported  above  300  pounds.  Several  of  the 
wells  showed  a  small  quantity  of  oil  in  the  Clinton  limestone. 

The  corporation  has  since  abandoned  the  vain  attempt  to  supply  fuel 
from  this  source,  and  the  people  have  gone  back  to  one  of  the  North- 
western Ohio  Company's  lines,  which  passes  through  the  corporation 
limits.  The  gas  rates  established  by  the  home  company,  while  its  supply 
was  maintained,  was  one  half  of  the  Toledo  rates.  The  latter  are  in  force 
under  the  service  of  the  Northwestern  Ohio  Company.  The  entire 
amount  invested  by  the  corporation  in  the  plant  must  be  counted  lost. 

(<?.)      GAS   Wl^,LS    OF    AUGLAIZE   COUNTY. 

Auglaize  county  is  distinguished  rather  as  oil  territory  than  as  a 
source  of  gas.  But  one  of  its  townships,  viz.,  St.  Mary's,  together  with 
small  portions  of  two  other  townships,  viz.,  Washington  and  German, 
has  proved  fairly  productive  of  gas.  From  this  field  the  supply  of  Lima, 
St.  Mary's,  Wapakoneta,  Minster,  New  Bremen  and  several  other 
smaller  villages  is  now  drawn.  The  most  productive  portions  of  this  dis- 
trict at  the  present  time,  are  the  following  sections  of  St.  Mary's  town- 
ship, viz.,  10,  11,  12,  13,  14,  15,  22,  23,  24— all  of  them  located  in  the 
eastern  half  of  the  township.  The  southwestern  quarter  of  the  town  is 
least  developed,  but  it  contains  a  number  of  excellent  wells,  and  if  it  had 
been  drilled  to  the  same  extent  as  the  east  side,  at  an  earlier  stage  in  the 
history  of  the  field,  it  would  have  probably  furnished  even  larger  wells 
than  are  found  in  the  first  named  portion.  The  north  line  of  sections  of 
German  township,  and  the  west  line  of  sections  of  Washington,  may  be 
included  in  the  St.  Mary's  field.  The  early  history  of  the  exploration  in 
this  township  is  quite  fully  given  in  Volume  VI.  At  the  date  of  that 
report  it  was  recognized  that  resources  of  great  value  lay  buried  beneath 
the  monotonous  surface  of  this  township,  but  the  outcome  has  been  much 
better  than  any  promise  that  was  then  foreseen.  For  the  last  two  years 
all  of  the  fuel  and  much  of  the  power  employed  in  manufacturing  in  the 


THE   TRENTON    LIMESTONE.  157 

important  towns  and  villages  above  named,  have  been  derived  from 
twenty-five  or  thirty  wells  drilled  within  the  limits  of  the  sections  named 
above,  and  the  supply  will  undoubtedly  be  maintained  from  the  same 
source  for  several  years  to  come.  Brief  descriptions  will  be  given  of  the 
main  developments  thus  far. 

(1)  St.  Mary's  Village    Corporation. — The  municipal   authorities  of 
St.  Mary's,  under  legislation  provided  therefor,  have  bonded  the  village 
for  $32,000,  and  with  the  proceeds  arising  from  the  sale  of  the  bonds  they 
have  leased  gas  territory,  laid  a  pipe  line  and  furnished  a  supply  of  fuel 
to  the  citizens,  as  well  as  free  gas  to  two  large  manufacturing  plants,  viz.r 
a  chain  factory  and  a  strawboard  factory.     The  gas  territory  which  they 
have  secured  lies   to  the  south  and  east  of  St.  Mary's.     It  consists  of 
1,100  acres  lying  in  an  almost  unbroken  tract.     The  annual  rentals  for 
the  lands  do  not  exceed,  as  a  rule,  one  dollar  per  acre.    Thus  far  it  has 
not -been  found  necessary  to  drill  more  than  a  half  dozen  wells. 

The  pipe  line  by  which  the  gas  is  conveyed  from  the  field  to  the  town 
is  four  inches  in  diameter;  within  the  corporation  six-inch  pipe  is  used. 
A  rock  pressure  of  315  pounds  is  reported  at  the  present  time.  The 
original  rock  pressure  for  this  level  was  360  pounds.  The  rates  at  which 
fuel  is  supplied  are  low,  viz.,  one  dollar  per  stove  per  month.  The  fuel 
furnished  to  the  two  factories  named  above  is  given  without  any  charge 
whatever.  The  supply  has  thus  far  proved  satisfactory  in  every  respect. 
The  Krein  &  Standish  Manufacturing  Company  manufacture  proof  tested 
chain.  The  works  consist  of  twenty-eight  forges,  a  sixty-horse  power 
boiler,  and  an  annealing  oven.  The  forges,  when  tested  in  1889,  were 
found  to  be  using  a  total  of  450,000  feet  per  day.  The  other  uses  of  the 
establishment  would  increase  the  amount  to  about  600,000  feet  per  day. 
The  wells  have  never  been  drawn  upon  heavily  enough  to  reduce  their 
back  pressure  below  the  point  of  danger.  As  long  as  this  state  of  things 
can  be  maintained,  the  territory  is  doing  as  well  as  it  is  possible  for  it 
to  do. 

(2)  The  Lima  Natural  Gas  Company. — The  greatest  draft  on  the  gas 
of  St.  Mary's  township  is  made  by  this  company,  although  the  Mercer 
Gas  Company  has  several  good  wells  connected  with  its  Piqua  line  in  the 
township.     For  many  interesting  and  important  facts  pertaining  to  the 
St.  Mary's  field,  the  Survey  is  indebted  to  Dr.  S.  A.  Baxter,  President  of 
the  Lima  Company.     The  Lima  Company  holds  gas  rights  on  about  7,000 
acres  in  the  township.     The  following  list  shows  the  location  of  the  wells 
drilled  to  August,  1889.    The  wells  are  arranged  in  the  order  of  the  sec- 
tions of  the  land  on  which  they  are  drilled. 


J57 


GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO. 


PARTIAL  LIST  OF^WELLS  OF  THE  LIMA  NATURAL  GAS  COMPANY  IN  ST.  MARY'S 

TOWNSHIP. 


'Name 

'  ""^"rafll*" 

of  landowner. 

• 

_     • 

Section. 

Quarter. 

Elevation 
of  surface. 

Depth  of  Tren- 
ton below  tide. 

11 

N.  W... 

887  feet. 

304  feet 

Longsworth 

13 

N.  E  

Kirten 

14 

S.  E  

905  feet. 

215  feet 

15 

N.  E  

899 

204    " 

"      2... 

15 

N.  E  

901 

216    " 

Koop     

15 

S.  E  

902 

Miller 

15 

N.  W  

911 

216  feet 

Wilkins   C. 

1  

15 

S.  W  

903 

177    " 

c< 

2  

15 

S.  W  

907 

182    " 

M 

3  

15 

S.  W  

906 

Wilkins  K 

1  

15 

S.  W  

914 

203  feet. 

tt 

2....  

15 

S.  W  

914 

205    " 

The  list  fairly  represents  the  field.  Neither  the  largest  nor  the 
smallest  wells  of  the  district  are  included  in  it.  The  earliest  measure- 
ments of  one  or  two  of  these  wells  rose  nearly  to  seven  million  feet,  and 
none  of  them  fell  below  one'  million  feet.  The  average  original  volume 
would  probably  be  about  three  and  a  half  million  feet.  Most  of  them 
were  drilled  in  1887.  Some  of  the  original  list  have  been  overrun  with 
salt  water  during  the  last  year.  All  have  fallen  off  notably  in  volume 
and  rock  pressure.  From  1888  to  1889,  the  shrinkage  may  be  represented 
by  figures  like  the  following  which  are  taken  from  the  records  of  three 
wells : 

October,  1888 4,553,400        July,  1889 3,381,000 

October   1888 3,995,000         July  1889 2,771,000 

October    1888 3,925,8«0         July  1889 1,667,100 

These  figures  are  probably  fairly  representative  of  the  facts  for  the 
ten  months  included  between  the  dates  named.  The  shrinkage  has 
proved,  in  the  first  of  these  wells,  about  25  per  cent,  of  the  original 
volume,  but  in  the  third  it  rises  to  60  per  cent. 

A  very  important  fact  remains  to  be  named.  To  undergo  this  shrink- 
age of  pressure  and  volume  it  is  not  necessary  that  a  farm  or  a  quarter 
section  should  be  directly  drawn  upon  a  well  drilled  upon  it  and  con- 
nected with  a  pipe  line.  The  force  of  its  gas  may  be  abated  nearly  as 
rapidly  by  wells  that  are  separated  from  it  by  intervals  of  a  quarter,  or 
even  a  half  mile.  A  very  instructive  case  is  furnished  by  the  Axe  well. 
The  early  history  was  given  on  page  256,  Volume  VI.  It  is  located  in  the 
northwestern  quarter  of  Section  30,  and  the  nearest  well  to  it  is  the  well 
on  the  Rump  farm,  one-half  mile  to  the  eastward.  This  last  well  is  in 


THE    TRENTON    LIMESTONE.  159 

the  MercerCompany's  line  and  was  drawn  upon  very  heavily  during  the 
winter  of  1888-9.  The  Axe  well  itself  has  never  been  reached  by  any 
pipe  except  by  the  one-inch  line  that  connects  it  with  the  house  of  the 
farmer  on  whose  land  it  is  located.  One  or  two  fires  in  this  house  it  has 
supplied  for  the  last  three  years.  In  1887  its  daily  volume  was  found  to 
be  2,357,000  cubic  feet.  In  August,  1889,  it  had  fallen  to  1,420,000  cubic 
feet,  a  loss  of  forty  per  cent.  Its  rock  pressure  had  fallen,  meanwhile, 
from  the  first  recorded  figure,  viz.,  390  pounds,  to  360  pounds ;  a  decline 
of  7-J  per  cent.,  but  worst  of  all,  it  throws  a  strong  column  of  salt  water 
with  the  gas.  As  soon  as  it  was  opened,  on  the  occasion  of  the  measure- 
ment last  referred  to,  the  cattle  that  were  pasturing  near,  hurried  towards 
the  well,  having  learned  to  regard  the  blowing  off  of  the  gas  as  an  oppor- 
tunity for  obtaining  their  rations  of  salt.  They  eagerly  licked  up  the 
salt  that  was  thrown  by  the  blast  of  the  gas  over  the  surrounding  vegeta- 
tion. This  example  is  a  very  instructive  one.  It  establishes  the  ex- 
haustibility  of  the  gas  rock  beyond  the  limits  that  would  generally  be 
expected.  A  halr  mile  of  separation  is  shown  to  be  no  barrier  against 
the  drainage  originating  in  a  well  that  is  worked  to  its  full  capacity.  A 
farm  of  a  quarter  section,  for  example,  can  be  robbed  of  all  its  gas  with- 
out a  well  being  drilled  upon  it.  Nothing  demonstrates  more  clearly  the 
fatuity  of  the  policy  which  multiplies  wells  to  the  number  of  ten  or  a 
dozen,  or  even  more,  to  the  hundred  acres.  There  is  no  part  of  the  Tren- 
ton limestone  underlying  Ohio  that  can  give  any  respectable  duration  to 
wells  that  are  thus  crowded. 

The  explanation  of  the  origin  of  the  rock  pressure  of  the  gas  of  the 
Trenton  limestone,  already  given,  is  based  upon  the  facts  of  this  field,  as 
much  as  upon  those  of  any  other  portions  of  the  gas  territory.  In  fact 
the  explanation  was  originated  in  connection  with  the  study  of  these  par- 
ticular facts.  The  Axe  well,  for  example,  had  a  recorded  pressure  a  few 
months  after  its  completion  of  390  pounds.  The  Nedderman  well  of  the 
adjoining  township,  in  Mercer  county,  all  the  conditions  of  which  are 
almost  identical  with  those  of  the  Axe  well,  originally  showed  a  rock  pres- 
sure of  395  pounds,  and  it  is  altogether  probable  that  this  figure  would 
have  been  reached  by  the  Axe  well,  also,  if  early  enough  observations  had 
been  made. 

From  the  table  of  elevations  previously  given,  it  will  be  seen  that 
the  well  head  in  the  case  of  the  Axe  well,  is  919  feet  above  tide,  and  that 
the  Trenton  limestone  was  struck  at  1138  feet,  or  219  feet  below  tide.  The 
gas  was  found  in  the  limestone  from  a  depth  of  twelve  feet  downward,  the 
well  being  finished  at  nineteen  feet  in  the  Trenton  limestone,  or  238  feet 
below  tide.  That  this  last  named  depth  is  the  approximate  level  of  the 

water  column  is  evident  from  the  history  that  has  just  been  given. 


l6o  GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO. 

Counting  the  specific  gravity  of  the  salt  water  1.1,  the  weight  of  a  foot 
of  water  with  a  square  inch  for  its  section  is  .476  pounds.  The  height 
to  which  the  salt  water  rises  in  cases  where  the  Trenton  is  found 
possessed  of  its  full  porosity  in  the  adjacent  region,  is  600  feet  above 
tide.  The  weight  of  the  column,  therefore,  of  salt  water  which  must  give 
to  the  gas  all  its  energy,  will  be  the  product  arising  from  the  multiplica- 
tion of  838,  the  number  representing  the  depth  of  the  full  salt  water 
column  (600  feet  above  tide  and  238  feet  below)  by  this  last  named  figure, 
.476  pounds,  the  weight  of  one  foot  of  salt  water  having  a  cross  section  of 
one  square  inch.  The  product  is  398  pounds..  The  395  pounds  of  the 
Nedderman  well  and  the  390  pounds  of  the  Axe  well,  especially  when 
taken  in  connection  with  many  other  records  in  which  the  agreement  is 
equally  close,  serve  to  establish  the  explanation  of  rock  pressure  pre- 
viously given.  These  several  sets  of  figures  furnish,  in  fact,  a  demonstra- 
tion of  the  cause  of  the  rock  pressure  of  gas  in  the  Trenton  limestone  gas 
fields.  Closer  appropriations  may  subsequently  be  attained  as  to  the 
average  density  of  the  salt  water  and  the  average  height  to  which  it  rises 
in  the  rock.  Any  change  in  either  factor  would  necessitate  a  correspond- 
ing change  in  the  other,  in  order  to  match  the  figures  as  now  obtained ; 
but  it  is  not  probable  that  the  final  figures  will  deviate  much  from  those 
already  given.  The  Lima  company  furnishes  an  excellent  supply  of  fuel 
to  its  patrons.  All  of  its  work  is  managed  with  care  and  sagacity. 

(3)  The  Wapakoneta  Pipe  Line  — The  Wapakoneta  Natural  Gas  Com- 
pany was  organized  rather  late  in  the  development  of  the  field,  viz.,  in 
1888.  It  comprised  a  number  of  the  leading  business  men  of  the  village. 
The  company  proceeded  to  lease  prospective  gas  lands  in  Washington  and 
St.  Mary's  townships.  In  the  former  it  secured  165  acres  in  one  tract,  in  Sec- 
tion 17,  and  an  eighteen-acre  tract  in  Section  18.  On  each  of  these  tracts 
it  has  drilled  one  well.  The  first  is  known  as  the  Shroer  well,  and  the 
second  as  the  Hudson  well.  The  first  was  never  a  large  well,  but  its  gas 
has  proved  uniformly  dry  and  uniform  in  flow,  and  it  is  highly  valued 
on  these  accounts.  The  Hudson  well  was  a  larger  well  to  begin  with, 
but  it  has  been  overtaxed,  and  it  has  lost  a  large  measure  of  its  volume 
and  force.  It  is  also  overrun  with  water  to  a  troublesome  extent.  It  is- 
evidently  nearing  the  end  of  its  usefulness. 

In  St.  Mary's  township  the  company  has  secured  208  acres  in  Sections 
14,  15  and  22.  Three  wells  have  been  drilled  on  these  lands,  all  of  which 
are  wells  of  good  volume.  They  constitute  the  main  reliance  of  the  line. 
Their  average  production  in  July  1890  was  about  1,300,000  feet  per  day. 

The  pipe  line  consists  of  eleven  miles  of  six-inch  pipe,  expanding 
into  eight-inch  pipe  within  the  village  limits.  The  collecting  in  the  field 


THE   TRENTON    LIMESTONE. 


161 


is  done  by  four-inch  pipe.  The  line  consists  of  good  material  and  is  well 
laid. 

The  rock  pressure  at  the  present  time  is  248  pounds.  It  fell  as  low 
as  190  pounds  last  March.  A  varying  pressure,  ranging  from  twenty  to 
eighty  pounds,  is  kept  on  the  line,  and  these  variations  affect  the  low 
pressure  side  to  some  extent.  The  aim  is  to  keep  four  ounces  of  pressure 
on  the  distributory  system. 

There  are  about  800  stoves  supplied,  and  two  flouring  mills  are  also- 
furnished  with  fuel  for  power  at  a  rate  of  $50  per  month. 

The  business  of  the  company  is  well  managed,  and  if  any  such  plant 
can  be  made  to  pay  out  this  will  do  so.  The  trouble  lies  in  the  ever- 
increasing  expense  in  maintaining  the  supply.  The  lands  of  the  com- 
pany are  interlocked  with  those  of  the  Lima  company  to  some  extent, 
and  the  wells  are  multiplied  unduly  along  the  borders  of  the  small  tracts. 

The  rates  of  the  company  are  as  follows  : 

DOMESTIC  USE. 


Heating. 

Cooking. 

October  1st  to  May  1st. 

October  1st  to  May  1st. 

May  1st  to  October  1st. 

Size  mixer. 

Per   month. 

Size  mixer. 

Per  month. 

Size  mixer. 

Per  month. 

No.  7  

$2  50 
1  75 
1  75 

No.  7  

$2  50 
1  75 
1  00 

No.  7  ... 

$1  50 
1  00 
1  00 

No.  5  

No.  5  

No.  5..  .  . 

No.  3  

No.  3  

No.  3 

The  New  Bremen  Pipe  Line. — A  company  was  formed  at  New  Bremen 
soon  after  the  organization  of  the  Wapakoneta  Company,  and  it  has  done 
its  work  along  the  same  general  lines  as  the  latter.  It  has  secured 
several  small  tracts  in  St.  Mary's  township,  has  drilled  two  wells  and 
has  maintained  a  satisfactory  supply  for  the  village.  Its  line  is  four  miles 
in  length  and  consists  of  four-inch  pipe. 

(/•>)      GAS   WELLS   OF   MERCER    COUNTY. 

The  important  gas  production  of  Mercer  county  is  confined  at  pres- 
ent to  three  townships,  viz.,  Franklin,  Marion  and  Granville.    The  gas 
field  of  Franklin,  which  is  developed  considerably  in  advance  of  either  of 
11        G. 


1 62  GEOLOGY    OF    OHIQ. 

the  others,  is  a  bodily  extension  of  the  St.  Mary's  gas  field  last  described, 
sharing  all  the  peculiar  features  of  the  latter.  The  Trenton  limestone  lies 
in  it  at  a  depth  of  about  1,100  feet  below  the  surface,  and  about  200  to 
250  feet  below  tide.  It  gives  rise  to  somewhat  larger  wells  than  the 
eastern  half  of  St.  Mary's,  the  maximum  figures  being  attained  in  the 
Nedderman  well,  section  26,  southwest  quarter.  In  1888,  this  well  showed 
fifty-five  pounds  open  pressure  in  a  three-inch  pipe,  which  stands  for  a 
daily  production  of  9,962,000  cubic  feet,  which  is  practically  10,000,000. 
The  original  rock  pressure  of  the  Nedderman  well  has  already  been  given 
in  a  preceding  paragraph,  viz.,  395  pounds.  This  is  the  highest  pressure 
registered  in  this  section  of  the  field.  As  shown  in  the  discussion  above 
referred  to,  it  is,  however,  about  the  normal  pressure  that  the  Trenton 
limestone,  under  the  conditions  as  to  depth  which  here  prevail,  should 
show. 

Nearly  the  whole  of  Franklin  township  is  counted  gas  territory,  the 
southwestern  sections  only  being  excluded  from  the  boundaries  which  are 
recognized  at  the  present  time.  The  main  development  has  been  made 
in  sections  20,  21,  22,  23,  24, 25,  26,  27, 28,  29,  30,  33,  34,  35,  36,  1,  2  and  3, 
in  all  embracing  nearly  twenty  square  miles.  Marion  township  has 
been  tested  mainly  on  its  northeastern  border,  where  it  unquestionably 
shows  the  character  of  the  Franklin  township  field.  There  is  no  present 
ground  for  expecting  the  southern  half  of  the  township  to  repay  further 
exploration. 

The  Granville  township  gas  field,  as  far  as  developed  at  the  present 
time,  consists  of  about  ten  square  miles  in  the  southeastern  quarter  of  the 
township,  with  sections  25,  26  and  27  for  the  northern  boundary  of  the 
field. 

The  character  of  the  gas  production  of  these  several  centers  can  best 
be  shown  in  a  brief  review  of  the  several  pipe  lines  that  are  carrying  gas 
away  from  this  field. 

(1)  The  Oelina  Pipe  Line. — A  private  corporation,  viz.,  The  Celina 
Light  and  Fuel  Company,  consisting  of  thirty  stockholders,  with  capital 
stock  of  $90,000,  of  which  $50,000  is  paid  up,  is  furnishing  Celina  with  fuel 
for  domestic  use,  and  also,  to  some  extent,  for  manufacturing  purposes, 
The  company  holds  under  lease  about  500  acres  of  approved  gas  land 
in  sections  28  and  30,  Franklin  township,  upon  which  it  has  already 
drilled  five  wells.  The  territory  is  fairly  compact,  but  still  several  small 
tracts  are  included  within  it,  of  which  other  gas  companies  have  obtained 
control.  The  Mercer,  the  Van  Wert  and  the  Urbana  companies  hold  the 
interlocking  territory. 

The  line  consists  of  seven  miles  of  four-inch  pipe  and  two  miles  of 
six-ineh  pipe,  the  latter  being  distributed  in  the  town.  The  rock  pressure 


THE    TRENTON    LIMESTONE.  163 

which  the  wells  showed  when  first  drilled  was  380  pounds.  Early  in  1889, 
it  fell  to  350  pounds,  in  1890  to  325  pounds,  and  at  the  present  time,  June, 
1890,  it  registers  540  pounds.  The  pressure  sometimes  falls  below  the 
danger  line  under  the  demands  made  upon  the  gas. 

The  locations  of  the  wells  are  as  follows :  No.  1,  northwest  corner  of 
northwest  quarter  of  section  30;  Nos.  2,  3,  4  and  5  are  all  in  section  28 
and  mainly  in  the  southwest  quarter.  The  volumes  of  the  several  wells 
are  approximately  as  follows  :  No.  1,  original  volume  1,500,000  cubic  feet; 
a  small  production  of  oil  came  with  the  first  gas  and  has  gained  upon  the 
gas  so  that  the  well  is  no  longer  of  great  value.  No.  2,  originally  estimated 
5,000,000  cubic  feet;  probably  about  2,000,000  feet  at  the  present  time.  No.  3, 
by  measurement  from  three- inch  pipe,  early  in  1890,  3,935,000  cubic  feet ; 
No.  4,  2,187  500  cubic  feet.  The  latter  measurement  was  taken  in  the 
tubing.  The  domestic  use  of  gas  in  Celina  does  not  extend  to  more  than 
about  a  thousand  stoves.  In  addition,  a  flouring  mill,  several  boilers  in 
small  factories,  and  two  glass  furnaces  are  supplied  with  fuel  from  the 
lines  of  the  company.  The  glass  furnaces  consume  a  good  deal  more  gas 
than  all  the  rest  combined.  The  ten-pot  window  glass  factory  uses  about 
700,000  feet  per  day  upon  the  average,  as  has  been  determined  by  a 
month's  careful  observation  of  a  pipe  line  guage.  The  tank  of  the  second 
glas?  factory  has  not  yet  settled  to  regular  work  and  no  estimate  can  be 
therefore  formed  of  its  consumption. 

The  company  already  finds  it  somewhat  difficult  to  keep  up  the  sup- 
ply, and  this  difficulty  is  sure  to  increase  in  time  to  come.  The  gas  is  to 
be  furnished  to  the  glass  furnaces  free  for  five  years,  by  a  contract  entered 
into  on  the  part  of  the  company  and  common  council,  but  there  are  some 
possible  complications  arising  from  the  terms  of  the  contract,  The  ten- 
pot  furnace  was  built  on  the  assurance  that  it  required  but  about  300,000 
cubic  feet  of  gas  per  day,  while  the  actual  amount  of  this  and  every  other 
ten-pot  furnace  in  the  gas  field  is  more  than  twice  this  amount.  If  the 
company  could  have  secured  any  protected  area  of  gas  which  could  be 
held  for  its  own  use,  it  would  undoubtedly  have  conduced  far  more  1o  the 
public  advantage  to  have  maintained  this  supply  for  domestic  use  alone 
than  to  have  burned  it  as  rapidly  as  it  is  now  doing  in  these  glass  furnaces. 
This  most  admirable  of  fuels  could  have  been  maintained  under  such 
circumstances  for  a  term  of  a  do/en,  or  possibly  a  score  of  years.  But,  deriv- 
ing their  supply  from  a  field  which  is  reached  by  ambitious  corporations 
whose  lines  go  out  to  large  centers  of  population  and  manufacturing  enter- 
prises, the  smaller  companies  have  no  resource  but  to  take  the  gas  while 
it  is  going,  and  to  obtain  their  share  of  advantage  from  it  in  every  way 
possible.  The  500  acres  of  the  company  can  not  long  survive  the  heavy 
draft  which  it  is  now  obliged  to  make  upon  them.  Its  territory  has  already 


1 64  GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO. 

lost  at  least  one-fourth  of  the  original  pressure  of  the  gas,  and  the  volume 
has  fallen  in  like  proportion.  If  the  company  could  even  now  get  free 
from  its  contracts  with  the  glass  houses,  a  longer  lease  of  life  could  be 
assured  for  the  domestic  supply. 

Since  writing  the  above  paragraph,  the  Celina  Municipal  Corporation 
has  purchased  from  the  company  named  above  the  entire  plant,  land,, 
lines  and  distribution  service,  and  another  case  of  the  supply  of  fuel  and 
light  at  the  public  charge  is  to  be  recorded  in  the  State.  The  company 
received  from  the  corporation  two  dollars  for  every  dollar  invested.  The 
rates  for  gas  remain  as  fixed  by  the  original  company,  viz.,  one  dollar  per 
month  for  a  stove — a  price  far  below  the  real  value  of  the  service. 

(2)  The  Mercer  Pipe  Line. — The  Mercer  Natural  Gas  Company,  in 
which  eastern  capital  is  largely  represented,  makes  by  far  the  largest  use 
of  the  gas  of  Mercer  county.  In  fact,  it  transports  more  gas  than  any 
company  in  the  State,  the  Northwestern  Ohio  Company  alone  being  ex- 
cepted.  It  derives  from  Franklin  township  the  bulk  of  the  supply  Avhich 
it  is  furnishing  to  the  cities  and  villages  to  the  south  of  it,  including  Day- 
ton, Springfield,  Piqua,  Troy,  Sidney,  Tippecanoe,  Covington,  Versailles, 
and  several  small  villages  in  addition.  It  has  a  few  wells  in  Marion  town- 
ship, which  adjoins  Franklin  on  the  south,  and  it  also  holds  a  consider- 
able acreage  in  St.  Mary's  township,  upon  which  a  number  of  good  wells 
have  been  drilled,  and  from  which  the  Company  has,  at  times,  drawn  very 
heavily.  Its  pipe  line  consists  of  two  main  stems,  one  of  which,  starting 
from  Section  36,  Franklin  township,  extends  to  the  southward  as  far  as 
Piqua  and  Troy.  This  line  is  eight  inches  in  diameter  through  its  entire 
extent ;  but  from  a  point  due  west  of  Sidney,  a  six- inch  pipe  is  taken  off, 
which  delivers  gas  to  that  town.  The  gas  for  this  system  is  gathered  by  a 
six-inch  pipe,  which  traverses  a  number  of  land  sections  in  Franklin  and 
in  St.  Mary's  townships.  Two  miles  south  of  Troy,  the  Piqua  line  unites 
with  the  other  main  stem,  which  consists  of  a  twelve-inch  line  with  about 
five  miles  of  ten-inch  pipe  nearest  to  the  wells.  It  starts  from  the  St. 
Henry's,  or  Dwyer  wells  of  Granville  township.  This  is  known  as  the 
Dayton  line.  A  few  miles  south  of  Troy,  a  ten-inch  line  goes  out  from 
the  united  stem  to  Springfield,  while  the  main  twelve-inch  line  continues 
to  Dayton.  These  lines  are  all  constructed  of  the  best  material  and  are 
laid  in  the  best  manner,  and  the  entire  service  is  kept  up  to  the  highest 
standard  of  efficiency. 

Wells  have  been  drilled  for  the  Company  on  the  following  named 
farms  in  Franklin  township : 


THE   TRENTON    LIMESTONE. 


165 


PARTIAL  LIST  OF  WELLS  OF  MERCER  NATURAL  GAS  COMPANY  IN  FRANKLIN 

TOWNSHIP. 


Name  of  landowner. 


Section. 


Quarter. 


J.  Offenhour 20 

H.  E.  Bennett 21 

I.  Brandon 22 

C.  Schmidt 24 

L.  Doenges 25 

R.  Wellman 25 

L.  Strassburg 25 

E.  Long 26 

W.  F.  Nedderman 26 

A.  H.  Vornholt 26 

I.Selby 27 

E.  A.  McGee 28 

H.  Schwieterman 33 

W.  C.  F.  Ahlers.. 35 

G.  Bertke 35 

D.  C.  Ahlers 36 

H.  J.  Doenges 36 

J.   Temple 36 

J.  F.  Dammeyer 36 

W.  Kawell 1 

C.  Koettger..... 

I.  C.  Greene 1 

II.  F.  Dammeyer 1 

J.  C.  Schierholtz 1 

A.  H.  Hirschfield  ..  2 


S.  E. 
N.  E. 
N.  W. 
S.  W. 
S.  E. 
S.  W. 
S.  W. 
S.  E. 
S.  E. 
S.  W. 
S.  W. 
K.  E. 
S.  W. 
S.  E. 
N.  W. 
N.  W. 
N.  W. 
N.  E. 
S.  E. 
N.  W. 
N.  W. 
S.  E. 
N.  E. 
S.  W. 
N.  E. 


Of  this  list,  the  Nedderman,  Schierholtz,  Offenhour  wells  are  counted 
among  the  strongest,  the  first  one  having  a  volume  of  very  nearly  ten 
million  cubic  feet  per  day  when  first  drilled.  In  1889,  there  were  prob- 
ably but  two  or  three  wells  of  the  entire  list  that  produced  less  than  one 
million  feet  per  day,  and  the  average  production  of  the  list  would  prob- 
ably exceed  three  million  feet  per  day,  and  might  possibly  reach  three 
and  a  quarter  million  feet.  This  is  certainly  an  excellent  record.  The 
company  holds  a  very  large  acreage  in  an  almost  continuous  and  un- 
broken tract  in  the  eastern  half  of  the  township,  and  especially  in  what 
is  counted  the  best  gas  land.  It  is  thus  able  to  protect  its  territory,  except 
from  the  excessive  draft  of  its  own  lines. 

That  the  territory  must  feel  the  draft  already  established  on  it  goes 
without  saying.  It  is  probable  that  the  reduction  of  volume  in  the  wells 
already  enumerated  for  the  year  ending  August,  1889,  would  not  fall 
below  25  per  cent.  Such  a  decline,  at  least,  is  found  to  be  the  case  with 
the  wells  of  the  neighboring  district. 

The  highest  original  rock  pressure  observed  in  Franklin  township,  as 
has  been  already  shown,  was  395  pounds.  Parts  of  the  township  still 
show  a  summer  pressure  of  340  pounds.  The  decline  in  pressure  has  been 
much  slower  than  the  decline  in  volume. 


1 66  GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO 

(3)  The  Van  Wert  Pipe  Line. — The  Van  Wert  Natural  Gas  Company 
is  now  drawing  a  supply  of  fuel  for  the  town  to  which  it  belongs  from  the 
Franklin  township  field.     It  has  leased  several  hundred  acres  of  land  in 
Sections  28  and  31,  and  has  drilled  five  wells,  all  of  which  show  good  vol- 
ume and  pressure.     These  lands  interlock  with  those  of  the  Mercer  and 
Celina  companies. 

The  company  did  not  abandon  its  own  immediate  neighborhood 
until  it  had  been  demonstrated  that  no  gas  supply  was  available  there. 
The  wells  first  drilled  in  the  vicinity  of  Van  Wert  seemed  to  have  encour- 
aged the  company  to  such  an  extent  that  in  1888  it  proceeded  to  pipe  the 
town  in  advance  of  securing  a  supply  of  gas.  When  later  it  began  this 
important  part  of  the  work  it  found  itself  disappointed  on  every  side. 
The  exploration  was  kept  up  until  fourteen  wells  had  been  drilled  in 
Ridge  and  Pleasant  townships.  Several  of  these  were  total  failures,  and 
the  very  best  that  were  obtained  were  inadequate  to  the  supply  of  250 
stoves  in  the  town.  There  had  now  been  expended  fifty  thousand  dollars, 
and  there  was  nothing  to  show  for  it.  It  was  in  this  emergency  that  lands 
were  leased  in  Mercer  county.  Of  the  first  two  wells  drilled  in  the  new 
field,  the  production  of  one  was  light,  but  the  second  was  counted  good 
for  six  million  feet  per  day.  The  two  were  thought  to  promise  an  adequate 
volume,  and  the  company  proceeded  to  lay  a  pipe  line  from  Franklin 
township  to  Van  Wert.  The  line  is  thirty-one  miles  lotfg.  The  first 
twenty  miles  of  it  consists  of  six-inch  pipe;  the  balance  is  eight-inch  pipe. 
The  gas  is  gathered  in  the  field  by  four-inch  pipe.  The  line  is  laid  under 
water  across  the  Mercer  Reservoir,  the  Board  of  Public  Works  giving  the 
company  this  privilege  at  an  annual  rental  of  $100.  The  rock  pressure, 
when  the  wells  were  drilled  in  the  summer  of  1889,  was  385  pounds ;  the 
reduction  during  the  last  year  has  been  but  forty  pounds,  the  gauges  now 
showing  345  pounds.  The  draft  upon  this  section  of  the  field  is  just 
beginning,  and  its  prospective  duration  can  be  estimated  more  safely  after 
another  year  of  use.  The  two  glass  furnaces  of  Celina  are  making  the 
heaviest  demand  upon  it  at  present. 

(4)  The  Urbana  Pipe  Line. — Urbana  has  been  very  unwilling  to  take 
"no"  for  an  answer  to  the  question,  whether  gaseous  fuel  could  be  found 
in  the  rocks  that  underlie  the  town.     As  is  proper,  the  answer  has  been 
sought  at  the  point  of  the  drill,  but  the  importunity  of  the  town  has  been 
very  costly.     In  Vol.  VI,  Geology  of  Ohio,  the  records  of  five  tests  of  the 
Trenton  limestone  in  this  immediate  neighborhood  are  given.     In  one 
well  the  limestone  was  penetrated  to  a  depth  of  380  feet,  where  a  strong 
flow  of  salt  water  was  reached.     In  other  wells  the  effects  of  heavy  shots 
were  invoked,  and  in  fact  nothing  was  omitted  in  the  way  of  proving  the 


THE   TRENTON     LIMESTONE.  167 

new  horizon.  These  wells  were  all  failures.  No  value  worth  recording 
was  developed  in  any  of  them. 

In  1889,  however,  legislative  authority  was  sought  and  obtained  for 
the  submission  to  the  popular  vote  of  a  proposition  to  bond  the  town  for 
$250,000,  the  funds  to  be  used  in  finding  and  utilizing  natural  gas.  The 
proposition  was  voted  upon,  and  a  vote  of  1,240  votes  cast,  only  twenty- 
seven  of  which  were  recorded  in  opposition  to  the  issue  of  the  bonds. 
Five  gas  trustees,  selected  from  among  the  leading  citizens  of  Urbana, 
were  appointed  by  the  Governor ;  and  the  first  work  done  by  this  board, 
presumably  in  obedience  to  the  popular  demand,  was  to  bore  another  deep 
well  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  town.  In  this  well,  the  driller  was  able 
to  get  down  2,100  feet  before  finding  a  strong  flow  of  salt  water;  but  the 
flood  found  at  that  depth  could  not  be  shut  out  from  the  well,  and  the 
privilege  of  using  public  money  in  sinking  the  well  more  than  800  feet 
below  any  geological  horizon  in  which  gas  has  ever  been  discovered  in  the 
hundreds  and  thousands  of  wells  that  have  been  drilled  in  the  country  at 
large,  was  denied  the  town.  In  Dayton  and  in  Springfield  private  means 
had  been  expended  in  drilling  wells  1,800  feet  and  2,100  feet,  respectively, 
below  the  top  of  the  Trenton  limestone,  without  any  result  but  the  dis- 
covery of  a  great  many  different  horizons  of  salt  water. 

This  last  test  seemed,  however,  in  some  way,  to  satisfy  the  people, 
that  it  was  not  worth  while  to  drill  longer  in  their  immediate  vicinity. 
There  is  ground  for  congratulation  on  this  result  being  reached  at  length. 
The  record  of  this  well  was  like  the  records  of  those  that  had  preceded  it, 
and  it  was  entitled  to  no  more  respect  than  had  been  awarded  to  them. 
It  settled  nothing  that  had  not  been  settled  already. 

The  next  step  of  the  trustees  was  to  visit  the  northern  gas  fields  and 
to  secure  territory  there.  Locations  were  sought  in  Mercer  county  as  the 
nearest  section  of  good  gas  land.  About  450  acres  of  land  were  leased  in 
Marion  township,  mainly  in  Section  12,  directly  south  of  the  great  Schier- 
holtz  well  of  the  Mercer  Company.  Of  the  lands  thus  leased,  320  acres 
lie  in  a  compact  body.  Three  wells  have  been  drilled  for  the  company, 
the  aggregate  gas  production  of  which,  from  the  tubing,  without  the  use 
of  torpedoes,  is  reported  as  ten  million  feet  per  day.  The  gas  is  entirely 
dry,  neither  water  nor  oil  being  found  associated  with  it  in  any  of  the 
wells.  The  rock  pressure  of  the  field  at  the  present  time  is  340  to  345 
pounds.  The  lands  of  the  company  lay  somewhat  outside  of  previously 
proved  territory  and  thus  make  a  valuable  addition  to  what  was  before 
known  as  gas  land. 

The  length  of  the  pipe  line  to  connect  the  field  and  the  town  is  nearly 
forty-five  miles,  and  in  the  distribution  within  the  corporate  limits,  about 
seventeen  miles  of  pipe  of  various  sizes  will  be  used.  Bids  have  been  in- 


I 68  GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO. 

vited  for  the  furnishing  and  laying  of  the  entire  system.  For  the  main 
line  separate  bids  are  asked  for  six-inch  pipe  for  the  entire  distance,  and 
for  twenty-seven  miles  of  six-inch  pipe,  with  the  balance  of  eight- inch 
pipe.  It  is  not  yet  certain,  however,  that  the  bids  for  the  whole  service 
can  be  brought  within  the  limits  of  the  $250,000  that  are  available  for 
this  use.  If  not,  the  project  will  necessarily  be  abandoned,  at  least  for 
the  present.  A  division  of  sentiment  in  the  Common  Council  of  the 
town  prevented  the  construction  of  the  pipe  line  last  year.  It  is  believed 
that  the  line  could  have  been  laid  at  that  time  within  the  limits  of  the 
available  funds ;  but  doubts  are  entertained  as  to  whether  this  can  now 
be  done,  on  account  of  the  advance  in  the  cost  of  pipe.  (The  contracts 
have  been  let  and  the  construction  is  going  forward.) 

The  rates  that  the  trustees  propose,  if  the  gas  is  brought  to  the  town, 
are  the  same  as  those  that  are  in  force  in  the  neighboring  towns.  It  seems 
to  be  assumed  that  the  business  of  furnishing  gas  is  certain  to  be  a  re- 
munerative one,  and  that  though  Urbana  pays  the  same  rates  for  fuel  as 
its  neighbors  who  depend  upon  private  companies,  the  people  of  the  city 
will  be  in  some  way  benefited  by  the  investment  of  a  quarter  of  a  million 
dollars  in  the  gas  plant.  This  result  could  be  obtained  by  taking  up  the 
bonds  of  the  corporation  as  they  mature  from  the  proceeds  of  the  gas 
rates.  If  a  surplus  should  accumulate  after  all  the  bonds  have  been  pro- 
vided for,  it  could  be  used  in  reducing  the  rate  of  taxation  in  the  city, 
and  the  investment  could  thus  be  made  to  serve  the  entire  population. 
Another  view  of  the  possible  advantages  to  be  derived  from  a  city  gas 
line,  is  that  by  the  introduction  of  natural  gas  into  a  town,  manufactur- 
ing interests  will  be  stimulated  and  enlarged,  and  perhaps  new  enter- 
prises attracted.  By  this  means  the  population  will  be  increased,  new 
demands  will  consequently  arise  for  real  estate,  and  all  branches  of  busi- 
ness will  feel  the  influence  of  the  rising  tide  of  prosperity. 

Most  of  these  towns  that  have  made  this  sort  of  investment  rely 
altogether  on  the  second  line  of  advantages.  They  count  the  public 
money  well  expended  in  promoting  the  business  activity  of  the  town.  Of 
course  such  business  prosperity  must  affect  the  population  of  the  town 
very  unequally.  There  are  many  who  are  unable  to  avail  themselves  of 
it,  and  who  find  the  new  prosperity  rather  a  burden  and  a  damage  than 
a  source  of  profit  to  themselves.  The  expenses  of  living  and  the  rates  of 
taxation  are  increased,  and  they  may  be  so  situated  that  no  corresponding 
advantage  can  accrue  to  themselves.  The  only  advantage  would  be  that 
they  could,  perhaps,  obtain  more  for  their  real  estate  if  they  choose  to 
sell  it. 

As  to  refunding  the  money  expended  in  the  establishment  of  a 
natural  gas  plant  from  the  proceeds  arising  from  the  sale  of  fuel,  there 


THE  TRENTON    LIMESTONE.  169 

has  not  even  an  important  beginning  been  made  as  yet  in  any  Ohio  town. 
The  question  in  Findlay,  for  example,  to-day,  after  $350,000  have  been 
expended  in  this  line  of  service,  is  how  much  shall  this  debt  be  increased 
for  the  present  year,  whether  by  borrowing  $50,00(3  more,  or  by  borrowing  a 
$100,000.  It  is  found  impossible  to  maintain  the  plant  and  the  supply  on 
the  entire  income.  Similar  conditions  obtain  in  Bowling  Green,  in  which  a 
vote  was  recently  taken  authorizing  the  council  to  issue  $100,000  additional 
of  natural  gas  bonds  to  extend  the  lines  of  the.company  and  continue  the 
supply  of  free  gas  to  the  glass  factories,  in  Fostoria,  Tiffin,  North  Baltimore, 
Maumee,  and  in  fact  in  almost  every  city  or  village  of  the  State  in  which 
municipal  control  of  natural  gas  has  been  obtained.  Not  a  dollar  has  yet 
been  paid  in  any  of  these  towns  from  the  proceeds  of  the  gas  on  the 
original  indebtedness;  and,  further,  there  is  not  the  remotest  prospect 
that  a  dollar  ever  will  be  paid  in  this  way.  More  than  the  entire  income 
from  the  plant  is  constantly  required  to  maintain  and  extend  it  so  as  to 
cover  an  evergrowing  deficiency,  caused  in  part  by  the  general  reduction 
of  the  field,  and  oftentimes  by  increased  consumption.  In  the  case  of 
towns  that  supply  domestic  fuel  and  light  to  their  people,  the  situation  is 
somewhat  improved,  when  the  gas  rates  are  kept  below  the  intrinsic  value 
of  the  supply,  as  is  shown  by  their  being  below  the  expenditure  previ- 
ously required  for  the  same  service.  By  means  of  these  low  rates,  the 
taxpayer  is  able  to  recoup  himself  to  some  extent  from  the  increased 
taxation  that  he  has  to  meet,  and  perhaps  he  can,  in  this  way,  be  made 
good  for  the  entire  amount  of  his  outlay  for  the  plant.  There  has  come 
about  in  this  way  an  undesigned  and  unconscious  application  of  the 
principles  of  nationalism  to  some  of  our  important  civic  problems. 

In  the  case,  however,  of  the  towns  that  furnish  gas  to  manufacturers 
only,  the  resulting  gains  are  very  unequally  distributed.  The  larger  indi- 
vidual shares  come  to  the  manufacturers  who  become  residents  of  the  town 
for  the  sake  of  the  advantages  which  are  offered.  The  owners  of  the  real 
estate  who  secure  the  location  of  a  factory  on  or  sufficiently  near  the  lands 
which  they  hold  for  sale,  often  realize  large  amounts  from  the  advance  in 
price.  So,  also,  tradesmen  and  mechanics  have  a  chance  to  derive  some 
advantage  from  the  increase  of  the  business  of  the  town,  but  there  must 
always  be  a  considerable  body  of  citizens  who  find  their  taxes  increased 
without  being  able  to  discover  any  compensation  to  themselves.  It  now 
seems  inevitable  that  the  gas  bonds  of  every  town  will  remain  to  be  paid 
after  the  final  exhaustion  of  the  gas.  As  long  as  the  much  coveted  fuel 
lasts,  all  the  revenues  which  can  be  gotten  together  will  be  used  in  protract- 
ing the  life  of  the  supply. 

The  strong  arguments  that  can  be  urged  in  favor  of  the  municipal 
ownership  of  gas-works  and  water-works  can  not  be  safely  applied,  it  ap- 


I7O  GEOLOGY   OF    OHIO. 

pears,  to  the  introduction  of  natural  gas  under  like  municipal  control. 
The  reason  seems  to  lie  in  this :  natural  gas  is  in  reality  a  product  of  min- 
ing enterprise,  and  it  is  surrounded  with  all  the  glamour  and  uncertainty 
of  other  mining  enterprises.  A  speculative  element  is  almost  necessarily 
introduced  into  the  search  for  it,  and  it  sometimes  happens  that  the  most 
unwisely  confident  members  of  a  community  become  its  accepted  guides 
in  this  sort  of  exploration  and  development.  The  best  that  can  be  hoped  is 
that  after  the  wonderful  advantages  of  gaseous  fuel  have  been  demonstrated 
to  a  city  by  the  introduction  of  natural  gas,  and  the  available  sources  have 
become  exhausted,  the  people  will  call  to  their  service  their  soundest  busi- 
ness men  and  charge  them  with  the  duty  of  adopting  some  system  for 
filling  the  exhausted  pipes  with  fuel  gas,  all  the  elements  and  stages  in 
the  manufacture  of  which  are  thoroughly  understood  and  susceptible  of 
exact  determination.  The  immense  saving  in  the  use  of  crude  fuel  that 
would  be  effected  by  such  a  course,  and  the  great  advantage  in  the  way  of 
convenience  and  cleanliness  that  would  accrue  from  its  use,  makes  such 
a  result  very  much  to  be  desired.  It  is  certain  to  come,  and  the  date  of 
its  introduction  on  the  large  scale  will  mark  one  of  the  great  advances  of 
civilization,  inferior  to  but  comparable  with  the  application  of  steam 
power  to  manufactures  and  locomotion,  or  of  electricity  to  the  various 
services  that  we  are  now  obtaining  from  it. 

(5)  The  Greenville  Pipe  Line. — In  1889,  permission  was  obtained  from 
the  legislature  for  the  municipal  corporation  of  Greenville  to  submit  to  a 
popular  vote  a  proposition  to  bond  itself  for  $130,000,  the  proceeds  arising 
from  the  sale  of  the  bonds  to  be  applied  in  procuring  a  supply  of  natural 
gas  to  be  used  as  fuel  and  light  in  the  town.  The  proposition  was  carried 
by  a  large  majority,  and  a  board  of  five  trustees  was  forthwith  appointed 
by  the  mayor.  Political  considerations  were  apparently  entirely  excluded 
in  the  appointment,  and  the  selection  was  made  from  among  the  most 
prudent  a'nd  successful  business  men  of  the  community,  including  the 
presidents  of  three  banks.  This  mode  of  appointment,  so  far  as  can  be 
judged  by  a  single  example,  seems  preferable  to  appointment  by  the  Gov- 
ernor or  election  by  the  people,  as  removing  the  positions  further  from 
the  reach  of  professional  politicians.  Certainly,  no  board  appointed  by 
a  Governor  represents  the  town  to  which  it  belongs  as  satisfactorily  as  the 
present  board  represents  the  interests  of  Greenville.  The  board  organized 
by  making  one  of  its  own  members  superintendent.  His  administration 
has  been  sagacious,  energetic  and  thoroughly  economical  from  every  point 
of  view.  Greenville  furnishes  by  far  the  best  example  of  municipal  con- 
trol of  a  natural  gas  plant  that  has  been  found  in  the  State,  and  it  goes 
some  ways  towards  redeeming  the  system  from  the  unfavorable  conclu- 
sions to  which  most  of  the  administrations  would  lead  the  unprejudiced 


THE    TRENTON     LIMESTONE. 

student  of  facts.     It  is  repaying  the  citizens  for  the  outlay  in  two  ways, 
'  viz.,  by  a  low  rate  for  fuel  and  by  prompt  redemption  of  the  city  bonds. 

The  trustees  were  preceded  in  their  work  by  a  gas  company  that  had 
leased  about  twelve  hundred  acres  of  land  in  Granville  township,  Mercer 
county,  the  land  lying  in  Sections  25,  26,  27,  30,  33  and  fraction  25. 
Most  of  the  leases  were  taken  at  a  rental  of  one  dollar  an  acre,  the  leases 
to  be  exchanged  for  two  hundred  dollars  royalty  on  each  well;  drilled  and 
used.  By  experience  the  trustees  have  learned  that  some~of  the  lands 
that  have  come  in  their  possession  are  of  little  promise,  and  they  are 
therefore  allowing  some  leases  to  lapse. 

The  old  company  drilled  two  wells,  and  the  corporation!  has  since 
added  three.  The  number  will  be  doubled  during  the  present  season. 
Well  No.  1  produces  dry  gas,  but  the  amount  is  not  large.  Measured  in 
February,  1888,  it  Was  found  to  yield  417,500  feet  per  day.  Well^No.  2, 
measured  at  the  same  time,  produced  about  two  million  five^hundred 
thousand  cubic  feet  per  day.  The  gas  rock  yielded  also  a  smalLamount 
of  oil  and  salt  water  with  the  gas,  but  this  well  is  still  valuable.  k3tWell 
No.  3  was  characterized  by  an  immense  flow  of  shale  gas.  In  well  No.  4 
the  lower  limestone  was  barren  when  first  struck.  It  was  drilled  fifty 
feet  into  the  Trenton  limestone  and  then  was  heavily  shot.  A  fair 
volume  was  developed  by  this  treatment,  but  the  presence  of  salt  water 
requires  a  back  pressure  of  at  least  120  pounds  on  the  well  to  keep  the 
gas  dry.  Well  No.  5  is  estimated  to  produce  two  and  a  half  million  feet 
of  dry  gas.  It  is,  all  things  considered,  the  best  well  of  the  list.  The 
total  capacity  of  the  wells  at  the  present  time  is  estimated  at  eight  million 
cubic  feet. 

The  original  rock  pressure  of  well  No.  2  is  reported  as  412  pounds, 
the  highest  record  of  this  part  of  the  field.  By  the  time  the  last  well 
had  been  drilled  the  pressure  of  the  entire  district  had  been  reduced  to 
350  pounds.  In  May,  1890,  it  had  fallen  to  265  pounds.  It  will  probably 
recover  fifteen  or  twenty  pounds  beyond  this  figure  during  the  present 
summer.  A  pressure  on  the  line  of  180  to  200  pounds  is  maintained.  In 
the  entire  length,  with  present  use,  the  pressure  falls  but  five  to  fifteen 
pounds.  In  gathering  the  gas  four-inch  pipe  is  used.  A  six-inch  wrought 
iron  pipe,  laid  with  lead  joints,  extends  for  eleven  miles  from  the  wells. 
At  Ansonia  an  eight-inch  line  begins  of  wrought  iron  and  screw  joints, 
which  continues  to  Greenville,  a  distance  of  eight  miles. 

The  village  of  Ansonia  is  to  be  supplied  from  the  Greenville  line, 
the  municipal  corporation  of  Ansonia  laying  the  distributing  pipe  in  that 
town,  and  paying  the  Greenville  company  forty  per  cent,  of  the  Wapako- 
neta  gas  rates.  .  The  gas  rates  in  Greenville  are  as  follows  :  Cook  stoves, 
$1  per  month.  Heating  stoves,  $1.50  per  month.  Gas  is  also  supplied  to 


172  GEOLOGY    OF   OHIO. 

a  tile  works  and  a  flouring  mill,  and  to  five  boilers  for  power.  For  such 
uses  the  aim  is  to  charge  about  seventy-five  per  cent,  of  the  cost  of  coal. 
There  are  2,000  stoves  dependent  on  the  line  in  Greenville.  The  gas  is 
distributed  in  town  under  six  to  ten-ounce  pressure.  The  aim  is  to  keep 
the  pressure  at  six  ounces. 

(E)      GAS    WELLS   OF   OTTAWA   COUNTY. 

Oak  Harbor. — The  only  gas  field  of  Otta\ra  county,  at  present,  is 
the  one  which  was  described  at  considerable  length  in  Volume  VI, 
that,  namely,  of  Oak  Harbor.  A  great  deal  of  drilling  has  been  done 
at  other  points  within  the  county  since  the  publication  of  Volume  VI, 
but  there  are  no  results  that  require  chronicling.  Nine  wells  have 
been  drilled  in  and  immediately  around  Oak  Harbor.  Six  of  them 
were  drilled  by  the  Oak  Harbor  Natural  Gas  Company,  which  has  ex- 
pended nearly  $16,000  in  this  work  and  in  piping  the  town,  so  as  to 
make  the  supply  available.  The  three  remaining  wells  were  drilled 
by  the  Cleveland  Syndicate,  and  are  known  as  the  Axworthy  wells. 
The  latter  have  not  been  utilized  to  any  considerable  extent,  and 
two  of  them  are  very  weak.  The  average  cost  of  a  well  at  Oak  Har- 
bor is  somewhat  less  than  $1,500.  All  of  the  wells  have  the  same 
general  character.  They  are  cased  in  the  Niagara  shale  at  400  to  420 
feet  below  the  surface  and  this  depth  of  casing  has  proved  sufficient 
to  keep  them  dry  until,  at  least,  the  Trenton  limestone  is  reached.  The 
Clinton  generally  yields  a  small  amount  of  gas.  The'section  is  normal 
throughout,  as  the  records  of  the  wells  previously  published  indicate.  In 
all  of  them  the  drilling  is  continued  in  the  Trenton  to  a  depth  of  twenty 
to  thirty  feet.  The  gas  is  found  at  the  very  surface  of  the  rock.  As  the 
drill  descends  a  few  feet  further  oil  is  invariably  found.  But  the  gas  gen- 
erally is  delivered  dry  until  after  the  wells  are  torpedoed.  The  result  of 
shooting  the  wells  is  marked.  A  greatly  increased  production  im- 
mediately follows  the  shot,  after  which  a  rapid  decline  sets  in  that  lasts 
for  about  a  month,  and  from  that  time  on  the  wells  show  but  little  change 
aside  from  the  gradual  reduction  that  characterizes  all  gas  wells  that  are 
being  drawn  upon.  The  amount  of  this  reduction,  in  the  three  years 
since  the  wells  were  drilled,  is  variously  estimated  at  from  ten  to  twenty- 
five  per  cent.  From  its  six  wells  the  Natural  Gas  Company  supplies 
something  less  than  175  stoves.  A  small  amount  of  gas  is  also  used  for 
lighting  purposes.  The  wells  have  all  that  they  can  do  to  meet  even  this 
small  demand.  Not  more  than  half  the  town  is  supplied  with  this  fuel. 
Whenever  the  temperature  falls  to  an  unusual  degree  a  shortage  is  even 
now  experienced.  The  rates  are  indicated  in  the  accompanying  schedule  : 


THE    TRENTON    LIMESTONE.  173 

From  October  to  May,  monthly  charges,  for  cooking  stoves $3  90 

«            "              "            "              "          "    heating       "     6  00 

Annual  charges  for  the  same  time  are 35  00 

For  furnaces  forty  or  fifty  dollars  are  the  annual  charges. 

(F)      GAS   WELLS   OF    SANDUSKY    COUNTY. 

The  main  interest  of  this  county  in  this  connection  is  in  oil,  rather 
than  in  gas,  at  the  present  time,  and  the  new  oil  field  will  be  discussed  in 
the  succeeding  section.  A  little  gas  is,  however,  used  at  two  points  in  the 
county,  viz.,  Gibsonburgh  and  Lindsey. 

(1)  Gibsonburgh. — In  the  supplementary  chapter  of  Vol.  VI,  brief 
mention  was  made  of  the  occurrence  of  gas  and  oil  at  both  these  points. 
Gibsonburgh  is  now  coming  into  unexpected  importance  as  an  oil  center, 
and  its  gas  is  losing  force  and  TDeing  overrun  with  oil  to  some  extent. 
Still  the  supply  has  proved  exceedingly  serviceable.  Two  large  lime 
interests  have  turned  the  gas  to  account,  and  the  dwellings  of  the  village 
all  make  use  of  it  as  fuel. 

Zorn  and  Hornung  manufactured  100,000  barrels  of  lime  last  year, 
with  gas  as  fuel,  and  Smith  and  Dohn  50,000  barrels.  Thie  year  both  will 
reach  100,000  barrels.  The  gas  supply  is  no  more  than  adequate  to  this 
production.  Each  of  the  firms  has  drilled  one  or  more  wells,  and  all  are 
turned  into  a  common  line  that  unites  all  the  wells.  In  the  winter,  when 
the  domestic  use  is  largest,  the  kilns  are  not  in  operation.  The  gas  is 
burned  somewhat  wastefully  in  the  new  kilns  of  Smith  and  Dohn.  A 
cloud  of  black  smoke  escapes  from  the  top  of  the  kilns  as  when  wood  is 
used.  This  effect  is  desired  by  the  company,  as  it  gives  assurance  that  no 
everburning  is  going  on.  To  secure  such  a  result,  the  gas  is  burned  undi- 
luted with  air.  No  long  life  can  be  expected  for  the  gas  under  the  cir- 
cumstances. The  wells  that  furnish  what  gas  is  now  used,  all  produce 
more  or  less  oil;  and  the  latter  element  increases  in  relative  amount. 
One  year  ago  the  rock  pressure  of  the  gas  was  440  pounds;  it  does  not  now 
rise  above  340  pounds.  The  original  rock  pressure  should  have  been  not 
less  than  515  pounds  to  the  square  inch.  There  are  no  figures  at  hand 
that  go  back  to  the  opening  of  the  field.  The  largest  production  of  any 
of  the  wells  does  not  probably  exceed  500,000  cubic  feet  per  day.  Salt 
water  rises  to  the  level  of  Lake  Erie,  or  perhaps  even  a  few  feet  above  in 
the  wells  in  the  center  of  the  township,  as  in  Sections  17  and  28. 

In  the  same  township,  however,  two  much  more  vigorous  gas  wells 
than  those  found  at  Gibsonburgh  have  been  recently  struck,  viz.,  in  Sec- 
tions 35  and  27,  Madison.  The  first  well  is  known  as  the  McCarty  well, 
and  its  volume  is  estimated  at  1,500,000  feet  of  dry  gas  per  day.  It  be- 
longs to  the  Ohio  Oil  Company.  It  seems  to  promise  a  gas  supply  to  the 


174  GEOLCGY    OF    OHIO. 

village  of  Helena,  that  is  but  a  mile  and  a  half  east  of  the  well.  The 
second  well  was  drilled  by  a  company  of  farmers.  Its  gas  production  is 
reported  as  quite  large  for  this  field. 

The  Gibsonburgh  Gas  Company  has  expended  more  than  $6,000  in 
providing  a  supply  of  gas  for  the  village.  The  rates  are  $15  for  a  cooking 
stove  and  $12  for  heating  stove  per  annum,  or  $25  for  both.  For  burning 
lime  three  cents  per  barrel  is  charged. 

(2)  Lindsey. — The  wells  drilled  in  1888  have  been  in  steady  opera- 
tion since  that  date,  but  though  the  supply  for  the  town  is  limited  to 
domestic  fuel  in  200  to  300  stoves,  it  has  been  found  necessary  to  re-enforce 
the  original  wells  by  drilling  a  new  one  during  the  last  few  months.  It  is 
located  to.  the  west  and  south  of  the  village,  and  is  reported  to  yield  more 
gas  than  all  the  others  combined. 

So  far  as  can  be  now  made  out  the  gas  supply  of  Sandusky  county  is 
likely  to  be  of  small  force  and  comparatively  short  duration.  It  will  be 
exhausted  in  the  devtlopment  of  the  oil  resources  of  the  county  which  is 
going  on  so  rapidly.  The  structure  of  the  field  will  be  considered  at  more 
length  in  the  succeeding  section. 

(6?)      GAS    WELLS   OF    WYANDOT    COUNTY. 

The  results  of  the  early  drilling  at  Carey  and  Upper  Sandusky  were 
duly  reported  in  Vol.  VI.  The  recent  facts  will  here  find  place. 

(1)  Carey. — Thirteen  wells  were  drilled  at  this  point  and  in  the 
immediate  vicinity  before  the  expectation  of  finding  a  home  supply  of 
natural  gas  was  abandoned.  The  city  has  expended  several  thousand 
dollars  of  public  money  in  this  search,  but  it  at  length  became  evident  to 
most  that  gas  must  be  brought  in  from  outside  if  the  town  was  to  enjoy 
the  advanta  of  the  new  fuel.  For  a  year  great  expectations  were  placed 
on  the  Ridge,  a  somewhat  elevated  region  that  circles  around  the  town  to 
the  north  and  west.  Several  of  the  wells  drilled  to  the  northwest  had 
shown  fairly  good  promise  and  the  gas  had  been  piped  in  to  the  town  from 
them.  A  company  based  upon  outside  capital  had  meanwhile  bought 
the  wells  of  the  corporation  and  the  right  to  supply  the  residents  with 
fuel  and  light.  The  company  had  proceeded  to  pipe  the  town  for  the  dis- 
tribution of  the  gas,  but  the  Ridge  wells  upon  which  their  first  reliance 
was  placed  also  proved  inadequate  and  treacherous,  and  the  loss  of  the 
entire  investment  seemed  imminent.  At  this  juncture  one  of  the  stock- 
holders and  managers  of  the  company  went  over  into  Marion  township, 
Hancock  county,  adjoining  or  constituting  a  part  of  the  Findlay  field, 
and  began  leasing  lands  on  his  own  responsibility  in  a  district  known  to 
be  productive.  After  securing  leases  upon  several  hundred  acres  of  land, 


THE   TRENTON    LIMESTONE.  175 

a  well  was  drilled  which  was  found  to  produce  dry  gas  in  large  volume. 
This  well  and  the  territory  leased  were  then  sublet,  with  privilege  of  pur- 
chase, to  the  original  Carey  company.  A  pipe  line  was  laid  from  the  new 
wells  to  the  old  mains  of  the  company  and  Carey  was,  in  1890,  for  the 
first  time,  put  in  possession  of  a  full  and  generous  supply  of  gas. 

The  company  now  holds  leases  on  550  acres  in  a  half  dozen  separate 
tracts,  the  largest  of  which  is  120  acres.  These  tracts  interlock  with  the 
Northwestern  Ohio  (Tiffin)  Company's  wells,  and  also  with  the  Kenton 
Oompany's  wells.  Such  interlocking  is  always  dangerous  to  gas  property. 
Four  wells  have  been  drilled  in  all  by  the  Carey  interest,  the  united  pro- 
duction of  which  from  the  casing,  at  the  date  when  the  wells  were  first 
completed,  is  reported  as  26,000,000  cubic  feet  per  day.  The  rock  pressure 
is  reported  as  having  been  380  to  390  pounds,  when  the  wells  were  com- 
pleted in  1889,  but  in  one  of  the  Tiffin  wells  it  has  fallen  as  low  as  260 
pounds,  and  in  the  entire  district  it  has  fallen  to  300  pounds  or  lower. 
This  exemplifies  the  source  of  danger  in  wells  so  situated.  The  tempta- 
tion of  one  or  the  other  company  will  be  to  run  the  wells  beyond  their 
proper  capacity.  The  pipe  line  is  14.7  miles  in  length — six  miles  consist- 
ing of  5-f- inch  pipe  (casing),  and  the  balance  of  4^- inch  pipe.  Two  and 
one-half  miles  from  the  wells  the  rock  pressure  is  reduced  to  ninety 
pounds,  and  this  pressure  is  maintained  to  Carey  with  but  very  little 
diminution.  The  loss  is  sometimes  but  five  or  six  pounds.  There  are 
but  600  stoves  and  a  few  steam  boilers  at  present  on  the  line  in  Carey,  but 
the  small  village  of  Vanlue,  intermediate  between  Carey  and  the  wells,  is 
also  furnished  from  this  line. 

One  of  the  Carey  wells  was  drilled  within  six  hundred  feet  of  the 
famous  Adam  Roth  well,  which  belongs  to  the  Northwestern  Ohio  (Tiffin) 
Company.  This  well  was  made  to  furnish  the  entire  supply  for  both 
Tillages  for  several  weeks,  and  at  no  time  was  its  pressure  materially  de- 
creased thereby.  The  Roth  well,  it  will  be  remembered,  when  first  drilled, 
produced  a  remarkable  volume  of  gas,  the  measurement  showing  more 
than  15,000,000  cubic  feet  per  day.  But  the  well  was  soon  overrun  by  salt 
water,  and  this  result  threw  discredit  on  all  the  surrounding  territory. 
The  Carey  well  found  the  gas  rock  eight  and  a  half  feet  higher  than  it 
was  in  the  Roth  well,  and  thus  far  it  has  shown  no  trace  of  salt  water  or 
oil.  The  uncertainties  of  gas  production  are  well  illustrated  by  these 
facts.  The  most  sagacious  operators  of  the  new  field  abandoned  the  ter- 
ritory around  the  Roth  well  because  of  the  record  it  had  made.  The 
reservoir  was  counted  small  and  consequently  short-lived.  It  must,  how- 
erer,  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  draft  on  the  Carey  line  is  thus  far  very 
ligkt,  and  that  the  conclusion  above  named  has  not  yet  been  set  aside. 
Steps  are  now  being  taken  to  secure  a  wider  market  for  the  gas,  as  will 


176  GEOLOGY   OF   OHIO. 

presently  be  shown.  When  this  use  begins  a  severer  test  of  the  life  of 
the  wells  will  be  made  than  has  been  thus  far  possible.  On  general  princi- 
ples, an  enduring  gas  supply  can  not  reasonably  be  expected  from  the 
vicinity  of  the  Roth  well  for  the  reason  that  the  salt  water  lies  so  near 
the  gas. 

One  fact  in  the  history  of  the  Ridge  wells,  referred  to  above,  deserves 
to  be  put  on  record.  There  were  two  wells  drilled  on  adjacent  farms  that 
may  be  designated  numbers  three  and  four.  The  interval  between  them 
was  fully  three  quarters  of  a  mile.  Well  No.  3  was  almost  destitute  of 
gas  and  had  no  appreciable  value.  Well  No.  4,  on  the  other  hand, 
showed  a  fair  volume  of  gas.  It  was  packed  with  a  Hoadley  packer  just 
below  the  casing  so  that  it  could  get  the  advantage  of  the  upper  veins  of 
gas  from  the  Hudson  River  shales.  From  the  date  of  the  packing  of  No. 
4,  gas  began  to  appear  in  well  No.  3,  three  quarters  of  a  mile  distant. 
The  farm  houses  near  by  were  at  once  connected  with  the  well,  and  for  a 
number  of  months  they  enjoyed  an  ample  supply  from  this  source,  and 
the  gas  was  constantly  flowing  in  a  strong  current  from  an  escape  pipe 
besides.  The  superintendent  of  the  line,  suspecting  that  the  packing  of 
Well  No.  4  was  in  some  way  the  source  of  the  new  life  of  No.  3,  de- 
termined to  lower  the  packer  and  set  it  near  the  Trenton  limestone.  The 
moment  that  the  packer  was  disturbed  the  pressure  fell  away  altogether 
in  No.  3  and  it  has  never  returned.  It  thus  appears  that  the  gas  was 
transmitted  fully  three-fourths  of  a  mile  through  some  channel  of  com- 
munication in  the  Hudson  River  shales. 

In  Volume  VI,  page  206,  an  anomalous  condition  of  things  was  re- 
ported in  the  case  of  well  No.  1  of  the  Ridge  series.  It  showed  a  good 
volume  of  gas  and  when  shut  in  would  very  promptly  register  a  pressure 
of  sixty  pounds,  but  beyond  this  figure  it  never  rose.  No  explanation  of 
the  anomaly  was  attempted  at  the  time,  but  in  the  light  of  the  more 
recent  experience  recorded  here  a  possible  clew  to  the  interpretation  can 
be  found.  The  gas  may  have  escaped  through  the  rock  when  the  pressure 
rose  beyond  the  figure  named. 

The  present  gas  rates  at  Carey  are  as  follows : 

Cooking  stove,  No.  5,  mixer $2  25  per  month. 

"  "          7,      " 3  00        " 

Heating  stove,  No,  3,      "     250        " 

"  "        5,      "     3  00        " 

"  "        7,      "     4  00 

A  discount  of  ten  per  cent,  is  allowed  from  all  these  rates  on  pay- 
ments made  before  the  10th  of  the  month. 

(2)  Upper  Sandusky. — By  reference  to  Volume  VI  it  will  be  seen  that 
several  wells  were  drilled  during  1887  by  the  village  corporation  in  and 


THE   TRENTON    LIMESTONE.  1 77 

adjacent  to  the  village  limits.  All  of  them  proved  unproductive.  The 
county  commissioners  were  next  induced  to  undertake  the  work  of  ex- 
ploration at  the  instance  of  many  citizens,  locating  and  drilling  a  well  on 
the  infimary  farm,  four  miles  northwest  of  the  court-house.  This  well 
yielded  a  light  flow  of  gas,  but  a  spray  of  oil  came  with  it,  especially 
when  the  well  was  allowed  to  flow  unrestricted.  The  amount  of  gas  was 
ample,  however,  for  heating  and  lighting  the  infirmary  buildings  and  its 
use  has  been  maintained  without  interruption  for  the  last  two  years.  The 
original  daily  flow  of  the  well  was  about  75,000  cubic  feet  of  gas. 

This  partial  success  encouraged  the  Upper  Sandusky  village  council 
to  resume  work,  but  an  injunction  was  presently  served  upon  this  body 
to  prevent  any  further  expenditure  of  public  money  in  this  way.  A 
private  company  was  then  formed  that  took  up  the  work  on  the  same 
lines  and  forthwith  proceeded  to  sink  three  wells.  Drilling  was  done  on 
the  infirmary  farm  and  well  No.  1,  of  the  company,  was  located  about  a 
quarter  of  a  mile  northeast  of  the  county  well  already  described.  It  was 
completed  in  the  fall  of  1888.  It  yielded  but  little  gas  at  first,  but  what 
there  was  proved  dry.  A  torpedo  of  eighty  quarts  increased  the  flow  to 
about  175,000  cubic  feet  per  day.  This  was  a  decided  advance  on  the  first 
well  drilled  upon  the  farm.  The  Trenton  limestone  was  found  to  carry, 
at  this  point,  a  bed  of  porous  dolomite,  essential  to  production,  a  feature 
which  was  entirely  lacking  in  the  village  wells  so  far  as  could  be  judged 
from  the  drillings. 

Well  No.  2  was  located  2,500  feet  northwest  of  Well  No.  1.  It  was 
also  completed  in  the  latter  part  of  1888,  but  it  was  entirely  unproductive. 
Well  No.  3,  which  was  located  1,000  feet  northeast  of  No.  1,  turned  out  to 
be  a  respectable  gas  well,  yielding,  after  being  torpedoed  with  sixty  quarts, 
dry,  about  one  and  one-half  million  feet  per  day  and  not  a  trace  of  oil  or 
water  was  found  with  the  gas.  This  gave  great  encouragement  to  the 
drilling  company.  Early  in  1889,  Wells  Nos.  4  and  5  were  drilled.  No. 
4  was  located  1,500  feet  southeast  of  No.  3.  It  proved  much  stronger  than 
the  latter.  A  measure  taken  February  14,  showed  the  daily  volume  to  be 
three  and  a  half  million  feet.  Well  No.  5,  1,800  feet  north  of  No.  4,  was 
finished  in  March,  1889.  It  was  at  least  as  good  a  well  as  No.  3.  The 
company  had  now  drilled  five  wells  and  four  of  them  were  productive. 
The  gas  was  entirely  dry  and  one  of  the  wells  showed  a  volume  that  would 
be  counted  fair  in  any  field.  The  success  with  which  their  search  was  at 
last  had  attended,  put  a  new  face  on  the  whole  question  of  a  gas  supply  for 
Upper  Sandusky.  A  field  of  considerable  apparent  promise  had  been 
brought  to  light  within  three  or  four  miles  of  its  boundaries.  Every  one 
was  eager  to  have  gas  brought  into  the  town,  but  the  company  was  not 
12  G. 


178 


GEOLOGY    OF   OHIO. 


able  to  construct  a  line  and  to  pipe  the  town  at  its  own  charges.  The 
choice  must  therefore  be  made  between  foreign  capital,  invited  in  for  this 
purpose,  and  municipal  purchase  and  control.  The  latter  proved  decidedly 
the  favorite  scheme.  The  necessary  legislation  was  procured  and  the  cor- 
poration at  once  proceeded  to  bind  itself  for  the  purchase  of  the  well,  the 
drilling  rights  of  the  old  company,  and  for  the  necessary  outlays  in  the 
utilization  of  the  gas.  The  rights  of  the  old  company,  together  with  its 
wells,  brought  them  somewhat  more  than  $30,000,  a  sum  that  repaid  the 
company  five  or  six  times  its  investment.  The  introduction  of  gas  wag  at 
once  begun.  Meanwhile  new  wells  were  drilled  by  the  gas  trustees  of  the 
village  corporation,  so  as  to  insure,  if  possible,  a  full  supply  for  all  pur- 
poses. On  May  1st,  Well  No.  6  was  completed.  It  was  located  3,000  feet 
southeast  of  No.  4;  it  was  practically  a  failure.  At  this  time  the  case  stood 
as  follows :  Six  wells  had  been  drilled  in  the  new  district,  and  the  total 
output  of  the  four  that  were  productive  was  about  six  and  a  half  million 
feet  of  dry  gas  per  day.  Several  other  wells  had  been  drilled  in  the  same 
neighborhood,  one  or  more  of  which  produced  smaller  volumes  of  gas  than 
those  already  described.  The  rock  pressure  of  two  of  the  corporation  wells, 
as  measured  by  certain  representatives  of  the  gas  interests  of  the  Findlay 
field,  was  reported  by  the  trustees  to  the  Geological  Survey  as  follows  : 

Well  No.  1 515  pounds. 

"        5 525 

The  figures  were  considered  entirely  trustworthy.  Well  No.  7  was 
then  located  on  the  Robert  Gibson  farm,  1,600  feet  south  of  No.  5,  one-half 
mile  due  east  of  Well  No.  3,  and  about  the  same  distance  northeast  of  No. 
4.  Its  location  was  in  a  sense  central  for  the  territory  that  had  furnished 
the  best  wells  thus  far  and  large  expectations  were  consequently  built 
upon  it. 

Meanwhile  a  line  of  levels  had  been  run  to  all  of  the  wells  drilled  to 
date  and  the  structure  of  the  new  field  was  brought  quite  clearly  to  light. 
The  records  of  the  wells  are  as  follows : 


Elevation 

at— 

Drift. 

Casing. 

To  Tren- 
ton lime- 
stone. 

Trenton 
below  tide. 

Depth  of 

well. 

Well  No.  1  

805  ft. 

43 

314 

1,268 

464 

1  308 

Well  No.  2  

815 

78 

314 

1  308 

493 

1  386 

Well  No.  3  

804 

30 

314 

1,262 

458 

1  294 

Well  No.  4  

820 

44 

315 

1,269 

449 

1  298 

Well  No.  5  

820 

52 

318 

1,288 

468 

Well  No.  6  

827 

45 

318 

1  295 

468 

1  333 

Infirmary  well  

807 

1,285 

478 

THE   TRENTON   LIMESTONE.  1 79 

An  examination  of  these  figures  shows  that  the  surface  of  the  Tren- 
ton limestone  in  the  Infirmary  well  was  found  478  feet  below  tide.  Well 
No.  1  of  the  county  had  fourteen  feet  advantage  in  this  respect ;  the  Tren- 
ton limestone,  in  other  words,  being  that  much  higher.  In  Well  No.  2, 
the  same  stratum  was  found  sixteen  feet  lower  than  in  the  Infirmary  well. 
In  No.  3,  an  advantage  of  twenty  feet  was  found  and  in  No.  4,  an  advan- 
tage of  twenty- four  feet,  as  compared  with  the  first.  In  Wells  I\os.  5  and 
6,  the  surface  of  the  limestone  was  ten  feet  higher  than  in  the  first.  These 
figures  do  not  furnish  us  all  the  essential  facts.  The  depth  at  which  the 
gas  was  found  must  also  be  taken  into  consideration.  The  gas  and  oil 
streaks  are  not  altogether  uniform,  but  they  generally  occur  between  ten 
and  thirty  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  limestone.  The  depth  of  the  main 
gas,  for  example,  in  Well  No.  4,  was  478  feet  below  tide ;  in  the  Infirmary 
well  the  gas  and  oil  level  was  about  494  feet  below  tide.  The  startling 
fact  was  thus  revealed  that  the  entire  range  of  the  top  of  the  Trenton 
limestone  for  the  wells  that  had  been  drilled  was  less  than  thirty  feet,  and 
the  range  of  the  dry  rock  was  much  less  than  this,  not  exceeding  at  the 
outside  twenty  feet.  It  was  also  shown  by  the  records  of  other  wells  that 
had  been  drilled  upon  either  side  of  the  productive  territory,  that  there  is  a 
rapid  descent  of  the  limestone  both  to  the  east  and  to  the  west.  More- 
over, the  two  failures  in  this  group  of  wells  had  brought  to  light  another 
fact  of  great  importance  in  this  connection,  viz.,  an  unsteady  or  unreliable 
character  of  the  Trenton  limestone  as  to  porosity.  Nos.  2  and  6,  for  ex- 
ample, had  been  found  dry.  Well  No.  2,  as  is  apparent  from  its  depth, 
would  have  been  a  salt  water  well  if  it  had  produced  any  thing ;  but  its 
failure  was  due  altogether  to  the  defective  character  of  the  rock,  the  level 
of  the  limestone  being  the  same  as  in  No.  5. 

The  gas  trustees  of  the  corporation  were  at  once  notified  of  the  un- 
welcome revelations  of  the  level,  and  the  urgent  need  of  economy  at 
every  step,  if  the  field  were  to  furnish  any  valuable  supplies  to  the  town, 
was  set  before  them.  Up  to  the  date  of  this  discovery  it  had  seemed  prob- 
able that  Upper  Sandusky  might  profit  more  from  its  gas  field  than  some 
of  the  towns  that  had  discovered  and  utilized  the  gas  at  an  earlier  date. 
The  lessons  of  experience  could  be  heeded  and  greater  economy  observed 
in  the  use  of  the  great  gift  of  nature. 

It  was  at  this  time,  September,  1889,  that  well  No.  7  was  completed. 
Its  record  is  as  follows :  Elevation  of  well  head,  826  feet  above  tide  ; 
drift,  fifty-three  feet;  casing  310  feet;  top  of  Trenton,  1,268  feet;  top  of 
Trenton  below  tide,  442  feet.  At  sixteen  feet  in  the  Trenton  a  good  vein 
of  gas  was  found,  a  second  vein  at  seventeen  feet,  and  at  thirty-two  feet  a 
monstrous  and  uncontrollable  volume  was  released,  making  absolutely 
insignificant  any  well  that  had  hitherto  been  found  in  the  field,  or  even 


ISO  GEOLOGY   OF   OHIO. 

the  combined  volumes  of  all  the  wells  that  had  been  previously  drilled. 
It  was,  undoubtedly,  the  largest  well,  or  one  of  two  or  three  of  the  largest 
wells  that  had  been  drilled  up  to  date  in  this  State.  The  top  of  the 
Trenton  limestone  was  found  seven  feet  higher  than  in  any  other  well, 
but  the  main  gas  came  from  474  feet  below  tide,  or  only  two  feet 
higher  than  the  gas  of  No.  4.  It  thus  appeared  that  the  new  well,  enor- 
mous as  its  volume  was,  had  added  but  little  to  the  scanty  volume  of  the 
dry  gas  rock  of  the  field,  and  it  was  manifestly  pouring  forth  into  the  air 
the  stored  resources  of  the  reservoir  at  a  rate  that  could  not  be  maintained 
but  a  little  while  without  exhaustion.  The  exact  figures  of  its  production 
can  not  be  given.  An  open  pressure  in  the  casing  of  from  ten  to  eleven 
pounds  was  reported,  but  these  figures  were  afterwards  recalled  as  some- 
what in  excess  of  the  facts.  Such  a  pressure  as  this  would  have  shown  a 
flow  of  eighteen  to  twenty  million  cubic  feet  per  day.  The  production 
was  probably  not  less  tban  fifteen  or  sixteen  million  feet;  it  may  have 
reached  18,000,000  feet  for  the  first  two  or  three  days.  This  would  be  a 
monstrous  well  in  any  field.  But  even  these  figures  failed  to  satisfy  the 
local  "experts,"  so-called,  who  kept  on  figuring  until  one  "insatiate 
archer  "  had  reached  a  daily  output  of  54,500,000  cubic  feet,  while  another 
kindly  drew  the  line  at  47,800,000  cubic  feet.  It  is  enough  to  say  that 
there  is  no  properly  authenticated  case  on  record  in  which  even  40,000,- 
000  cubic  feet  ever  came  out  of  the  casing  of  a  gas  well  in  twenty-four 
hours. 

The  entire  community,  and  especially  the  people  of  Upper  Sandusky, 
were  greatly  excited  over  this  astonishing  display,  and  large  plans  for  the 
utilization  of  the  gas  were  at  once  formed.  But  the  history  of  the  field 
from  this  date  proved  brief  and  disappointing.  The  great  flow  of  well 
No.  7  was  struck  on  September  6,  1889.  The  well  was  tubed  and  packed 
with  difficulty,  four-inch  pipe  being  used ;  but  in  the  week  of  its  un- 
restrained flow  it  was  noticed  that  the  production  was  steadily  declining. 
Public  exhibitions  were  made  of  it  thereafter,  however,  during  the  county 
fair,  but  on  Saturday,  the  21st,  the  gas  was  accidentally  set  on  fire.  It 
burned  for  thirty- six  hours  before  the  flame  could  be  brought  under  con- 
trol. On  the  23d  the  well  began  to  show  indications  of  salt  water;  on  the 
24th  it  threw  gait  water  in  a  steady  stream,  though  a  large  volume  of  gas 
was  still  escaping.  On  the  25th  oil  was  delivered  with  the  salt  water  and 
gas,  and  it  was  presently  made  manifest  that  the  tremendous  flow  of  the 
well  had  not  only  exhausted  its  own  portion  of  the  reservoir  but  that  of 
the  entire  district  as  well.  For  examination  of  the  adjacent  wells  at  once 
revealed  the  unwelcome  truth  that  they  were  being  overrun  with  oil  and 
salt  water.  No  portion  of  the  Upper  Sandusky  field  was  any  longer, 
therefore,  able  to  supply  dry  gas.  Various  attempts  were  made  by  lock- 


THE   TRENTON    LIMESTONE. 


181 


ing  in  the  wells  until  several  hundred  pounds  back  pressure  was  obtained, 
or  by  separating  the  water  mechanically  to  improve  the  condition  of  the 
gas.  But  none  of  these  attempts  were  more  than  partially  successful. 
The  supply  from  all  the  wells  has  been  insufficient  during  the  past  winter 
for  1,500  stoves,  and  the  patience  of  the  consumers  has  been  severely 
tried  by  the  frequent  interruptions  resulting  from  water  and  oil  in  the 
pipes.  All  the  expectations  of  the  town,  which  during  the  first  half  of 
1889  seemed  to  be  so  reasonable  and  well  founded,  were  thus  brought  to 
naught.  The  gas  trustees,  however,  continued  their  explorations  within 
the  same  general  limits.  Other  companies  were  also  drilling  wells  around 
the  margins  of  their  territory,  but  with  results  even  less  valuable  than 
those  already  reported. 

All  of  the  drilling  above  described  was  done  in  adjoining  sections  of 
Salem  and  Crane  townships.  Wells  1,  3,  4,  5,  7  and  8  are  in  Section  12, 
Salem  township.  No  2  is  in  Section  11.  No.  6  is  in  Section  13.  The 
registers  of  the  remaining  wells  of  the  Upper  Sandueky  corporation  is 
found  in  the  list  below  : 


Drift. 

Top  of 
Trenton. 

Total 
depth. 

Well  No.  9  

58 

1,291 

1,325 

Oil  and  salt  water. 

'  10  

55 

1,337 

1,356 

Oil  —  small  amount. 

'  11  

45 

1,322 

1,351 

Oil  —  35  bbls.  per  day  reported. 

'  12  

44 

1,323 

1,355 

Gas  —  oil  near  by. 

'  13  

1,277 

Dry. 

'  14  

62 

1,336 

1,377 

Gas  in  small  amount. 

In  all  these  wells,  so  far  as  productive  at  all,  gas  is  found  at  from 
thirteen  to  fifteen  feet  in  the  Trenton,  and  oil  from  four  to  nine  feet  below 
the  gas.  The  prospect  of  an  oil  field  within  the  limits  above  named  has 
awakened  even  greater  excitement  than  that  which  was  produced  by  the  dis- 
covery of  the  gas.  The  facts  pertaining  to  this  latter  phase  will  be  taken 
up  on  a  succeeding  page.  The  value  of  the  district  in  this  particular  will 
undoubtedly  be  determined  early  in  the  present  year. 

The  corporation  has  already  bonded  itself  for  $95,000  in  this  interest. 
Further  expenditures  will  bring  up  the  amount  to  considerable  more  than 
$100,000  of  public  indebtedness.  The  village  has  a  valuable  plant  in  the 
ground,  arid  it  is  hoped  that  from  the  sale  of  the  oil  rights  of  the  territory 
..which  it  controls,  a  handsome  sum  may  be  realized.  The  Carey  Gas- 
Company,  it  is  understood,  stands  ready  to  connect  its  present  line  with 
the  Upper  Sandusky  gas  line.  This  could  be  done  by  laying  six  miles  6f 
six-inch  pipe  at  a  cost  of  $25,000.  The  wells-  of  the  Carey  Company,  it 


1 82  GEOLOGY   OF    OHIO. 

will  be  remembered,  are  located  in  Marion  township,  a  part  of  the  Find- 
lay  field. 

Further  explorations  will  probably  be  undertaken  in  the  Marseilles 
district,  on  the  southern  border  of  the  county,  during  the  present  year. 
The  surface  limestone  indicates  a  proper  disposition  of  the  Trenton  as  a 
reservoir  of  gas  and  oil,  but  in  the  tests  already  made  the  rock  was  found 
hard  and  dry.  If  a  proper  quality  occurs  at  any  point  within  the  limits 
indicated  by  the  surface  geology,  there  is  reason  to  expect  fair  response  to 
the  drill.  The  rock  pressure  of  the  Upper  Sandusky  field  has  already 
been  given,  viz.,  515  pounds  in  well  No.  1.  The  gas  was  struck  in  this 
well  at  a  depth  of  478  feet  below  tide,  and  as  we  have  subsequently 
learned,  the  oil  and  salt  water  level  was  perilously  near.  Calculation, 
based  on  the  method  of  the  preceding  chapter,  would  indicate  that  the 
pressure  should  be  513  pounds.  This  agreement  is  certainly  close  enough 
with  the  pressure  as  reported. 

GAS    WELLS   OF    HARDIN    COUNTY. 

(1)  Kenton. — In  Volume  VI,  the  resolute  attempt  of  Kenton  to  find 
an  available  gas  field  near  at  hand  was  duly  reported.  Gas  was  piped 
from  the  McElree  wells,  of  Jackson  township,  to  the  town  and  used  as  far 
as  it  would  go,  but  the  supply  was  altogether  inadequate.  The  search 
was  persistently  kept  up  through  1888  by  the  company  until  the  entire 
circuit  of  the  town  had  been  made  in  these  tests,  so  far  as  fifteen  or 
twenty  wells  could  be  made  to  serve  such  a  purpose.  When  all  of  these 
efforts  had  proved  virtually  fruitless,  the  company  began  to  turn  its  atten- 
tion to  outside  fields.  The  nearest  large  production  was  found  in  the 
vicinity  of  Houckstown,  Jackson  township,  Hancock  county.  Several 
wells  had  been  drilled  here  by  Findlay  parties  and  a  fair  volume  of  gas 
had  been  discovered.  The  main  drawback  was  the  indication  of  salt 
water  at  no  great  depth  below  the  gas.  A  well  of  two  to  three  million 
feet,  however,  and  drilling  rights  on  several  hundred  acres  of  land  were 
.purchased  by  the  Kenton  Company  at  this  point,  and  a  six-inch  pipe  line 
about  twenty  miles  in  length  was  completed  to  the  town.  Other  wells 
were  also  drilled,  and  for  a  few  months  a  satisfactory  supply  was  enjoyed 
at  Kenton;  but  in  the  winter  of  1888  and  1889,  it  was  found  necessary  to 
draw  upon  the  wells  for  all  they  could  produce  and  they  proved  unable 
to  bear  this  treatment,  salt  water  soon  appearing  in  them  and  in  the  pipe 
line.  As  is  uniformly  the  case,  this  element,  when  once  it  had  found 
entrance,  proved  aggressive,  gaining  steadily  upon  the  gas,  and  the 
Houckstown  field  was  presently  recognized  as  practically  exhausted  far 
large  supplies. 


THE   TRENTON    LIMESTONE.  183 

The  Kenton  Company  once  more  extended  its  lines.  Tracts  aggre- 
gating about  700  acres  were  leased  for  gas  purposes  in  Marion  township  in 
the  neighborhood  of  the  great  Thorntree  well,  eight  or  nine  miles  north  of 
the  Houckslown  field.  Three  wells  have  been  drilled  in  this  neighbor- 
hood and  the  company  is  at  present  able  to  furnish  an  abundant  supply 
in  Kenton  for  all  purposes.  The  tracts  of  the  Kenton  Company  in  Marion 
township  interlock,  as  has  been  already  stated,  with  the  lands  of  the 
Northwestern  Ohio  Natural  Gas  Company  (Tiffin  Natural  Gas  Company), 
and  also  with  those  of  the  Carey  Company  already  described.  These  facts 
seem  to  indicate  a  comparatively  short  life  for  the  field,  especially  when 
taken  in  connection  with  the  disclosure  of  water  and  oil,  both  dangerously 
near  the  gas,  in  both  the  Thorntree  and  the  Roth  wells,  which  have  been 
previously  described.  The  rock  pressure  is  reported  at  315  pounds  on 
August  1st,  1890. 

Home  capital  has  undertaken  and  provided  the  supply  of  gas  for 
Kenton,  and  in  this  respect  the  town  is  in  contrast  with  most  of  the  towns 
around  it  that  have  secured  a  supply  thus  far.  The  common  practice  has 
been  either  to  invoke  the  aid  of  foreign  capital,  or  to  put  the  burden  of 
the  search  for  and  the  utilization  of  gas  upon  the  public  treasury.  The 
company  has  already  expended  $130,000.  Its  line  is  now  thirty  miles  in 
length.  It  is  a  wrought  iron,  screw  joint,  six-inch  pipe,  and  is  well  laid. 
Kenton  furnishes  at  present  a  demand  represented  by  1,000  mixers,  two- 
thirds  of  which  are  No.  5.  Gas  is  furnished  to  the  Pulp  Works,  the 
City  Water  Works,  the  Champion  Iron  Company  and  the  flouring  mills. 
The  price  charged  these  large  consumers  is  designed  to  equal  the  cost  of 
coal  displaced.  Toledo  rates  are  in  force  except  that  the  discounts  below 
the  third  mixer  are  not  in  force. 

(2)  Forest. — In  Volume  VI  the  drilling  of  one  well  which  proved 
without  value  within  the  village  limits  of  Forest  was  reported.  In  the  same 
record  it  was  pointed  out  that  as  far  as  the  surface  geology  could  be  trusted, 
more  favorable  conditions  were  likely  to  be  iound  a  mile  or  so  to  the  west- 
ward. A  gas  company  consisting  of  fifteen  to  twenty  members  was  pres- 
ently organized  and  drilling  was  begun  one  and  one-half  miles  southwest 
of  the  village.  Five  wells  were  drilled  upon  a  single  farm ;  four  others 
were  distributed  through  the  same  neighborhood.  The  five  wells  first 
named  all  proved  to  be  small  producers  of  dry  gas.  Their  flow  was  some- 
what improved  in  all  eases  by  the  use  of  a  torpedo,  but  the  total  produc- 
tion was  still  very  light.  All  the  wells  but  one  were  tubed  with  two-inch 
pipe.  The  Trenton  limestone  was  found  at  about  1,350  feet  below  the 
surface,  or  about  425  feet  below  tide.  The  rock  pressure,  as  observed  in 
May,  1889,  was  about  300  pounds. 


184  GEOLOGY   OF   OHIO. 

The  wells  were  measured  for  the  company  early  in  May,  1889,  and 
again  in  July  of  the  same  year.  In  the  first  measurement  the  wells  had 
not  heen  opened  for  more  than  a  half  hour  before  the  gauges  were  applied. 
Before  the  second  measurement  they  had  been  left  open  fur  twenty-four 
hours.  By  the  first  measurement,  the  combined  daily  production  of  the 
wells  was  found  to  range  between  400,000  and  500  000  cubic  feet.  By  the 
second  measurement,  a  production  of  not  more  than  150,000  feet  was  shown. 
The  company  piped  the  gas  to  the  village  during  the  summer  of  1889., 
and  its  use  has  been  going  on  from  that  time  forward. 

(3)  Ada. — An  early  test  of  the  Trenton  limestone  was  made  at  Ada, 
as  reported  in  Volume  VI.  In  1888,  a  company  of  nine  members  was 
organized  to  carry  on  a  more  thorough  search  for  gas,  to  be  used  in  the 
supply  of  the  village.  The  citizens  were  also  invited  to  contribute  to  the 
test  with  the  guaranty  that  returns  should  be  made  to  them,  in  case  of 
success,  at  the  rate  of  two  dollars  for  one.  The  drilling  has  been  distrib- 
uted over  a  number  of  farm?,  but  mainly  through  a  district  from  two  to 
three  miles  northwest  of  the  village,  in  Sections  5,  6,  7,  8  and  9  of  Liberty 
township. 

The  first  well  of  the  new  company  was  drilled  on  the  Lynch  farm, 
near  the  center  of  Section  8.  The  level  of  the  surface  was  approximately 
950  feet  above  tide  ;  the  drift  was  twelve  to  fifteen  feet  thick.  The  Tren- 
ton limestone  was  struck  at  1,354  feet,  or  about  400  feet  Lelow  tide,  and  it 
was  penetrated  to  a  depth  of  1,394  feet,  when  the  drilling  tools  were  lost. 
They  were  never  recovered.  The  well  yielded  a  little  gas,  but  gave  no 
promise  of  value.  A  portable  rig  was  used  in  drilliDg  this  well,  and  six 
months  were  occupied  in  sinking  it. 

The  second  well  was  drilled  on  the  Tressel  farm,  about  the  center  of 
Section  9.  It  was  sunk  to  a  depth  of  1,634  feet  without  a  show  of  gas,  oil 
or  water. 

The  third  well  gave  decidedly  more  encouragement.  It  was  located 
in  the  northeast  corner  of  Section  7,  on  the  farm  of  James  Harshee.  The 
drift  beds  were  sixty  feet  thick.  The  elevation  of  the  well  head  was  about 
950  feet  above  tide.  The  Trenton  was  found  at  1,372  feet  below  the  sur- 
face, and  the  drilling  was  continued  to  1,405  feet.  The  main  gas  was 
found  at  seven  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  limestone.  The  supply  at  first 
was  small,  but  the  amount  was  greatly  increased  by  a  heavy  shot  of  100 
quarts  of  nitro-glycerine.  Throughout  its  entire  history  the  well  has  pro- 
duced nothing  but  dry  gas.  Its  flow  was  measured  in  May,  1889,  and  the 
well  was  found  to  produce,  in  round  numbers,  one  and  one-half  million 
feet  per  day  through  the  two-inch  tubing.  The  measurement  was  repeated 
in  April,  1890,  and,  although  several  wells  had  been  allowed  to  blow  un- 
restrained for  some  weeks  in  the  immediate  neighborhood,  no  falling  off 


THE   TRENTON     LIMESTONE.  185 

was  apparent  in  the  production  of  this  well.  The  rock  pressure  as  taken 
at  the  time  of  the  last  measurement,  was  318  pounds  in  one  hour's  time. 
It  rose  to  261  pounds  in  fifteen  minutes.  The  well  is  decidedly  the  most 
promising  that  has  been  drilled  by  the  company  thus  far. 

The  fourth  well  of  the  company  was  drilled  on  the  Van  Valkenburg 
farm,  in  the  northwest  quarter  of  Section  5.  The  drift  was  here  fifty- six 
feet  thick;  the  casing  was  set  at  470  feet;  the  Trenton  was  reached  at 
1,357  feet,  and  a  good  vein  of  gas  was  found  at  seventeen  feet  in  the  rock. 
But  when  the  drill  reached  1,390  feet  a  very  strong  brine  was  struck, 
which  is  now  delivered  with  the  gas.  The  well  was  subsequently  shot 
with  eighty  quarts.  Its  gas  production  from  the  two-inch  tubing  is  a 
trifle  over  1,000,000  feet  per  day.  When  the  well  has  been  locked  in  for 
several  flays  the  gas  will  escape  dry,  upon  opening  it,  for  a  half  hour  or  so. 

The  fifth  well  was  drilled  on  the  Turner  farm  in  the  northwest  quar- 
ter, and  near  the  western  boundary  of  Section  8.  The  drift  was  found 
thirty-nine  feet  thick.  The  casing  was  set  at  476  feet.  The  Trenton  was 
reached  at  1,367  feet.  At  seventeen  feet  in  the  rock  light  gas  was  reported, 
and  salt  water  in  considerable  volume  at  twenty-two  feet.  The  water  rose 
300  to  350  feet,  and  the  well  was  then  plugged  and  abandoned. 

The  sixth  well  was  drilled  near  the  center  of  "Section  6,  on  the  Shaw 
farm.  The  drift  beds  were  fifty-nine  feet  thick,  the  casing  was  set  at  498 
feet,  and  the  Trenton  was  reached  at  1,380  feet.  Oil  and  salt  water  were 
struck  twenty-three  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  limestone.  The  eleva- 
tion of  the  ground  may  be  counted  as  approximately  the  same  as  that  of 
the  Harshee  well,  a  half  mile  distant.  On  this  basis  the  following  facts 
come  to  light :  In  the  Harshee  well  dry  gas  was  reached  at  1,379  feet,  or 
approximately  at  430  feet  below  tide.  In  the  Shaw  well  oil  and  salt  water 
were  found  at  1,403,  or  approximately  450  feet  below  tide.  The  entire 
amount  of  dry  gas  rock,  according  to  this  calculation,  must  be  less  than 
twenty  feet. 

The  seventh  well  was  drilled  on  the  Bauman  farm,  in  the  southwest 
corner  of  Section  5,  and  but  one-third  of  a  mile  distant  from  the  success- 
ful Harshee  well.  Its  daily  production  was  found  to  be  1,160,000  cubic 
feet.  Its  rock  pressure  accumulated  for  one  hour  is  301  pounds.  The  gas 
thus  far  has  proved  entirely  dry.  It  reproduces  the  record  of  the  Harshee 
well  very  closely,  and  the  same  thing  can  be  said  of  two  wells  that  have 
been  drilled,  on  the  Nichols  farm,  in  the  southeast  corner  of  Section  6,  by 
parties  from  Indiana.  The  wells  are  known  as  the  Fulton  wells.  The 
united  production  of  these  wells,  measured  in  April,  1890,  was  found  to 
be  about  1,000,000  cubic  feet  per  day.  The  rock  pressure  in  No.  2  rose  to 
291  pounds  in  twenty-six  minutes.  The  gas  from  these  two  wells  and 
from  the  Bauman  well,  previously  described,  is  entirely  dry. 


I 86  GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO. 

The  last  of  the  company's  wells  has  now  been  completed.  It  will  be 
seen  that  the  company  has  secured  by  the  drilling  of  seven  wells  an 
available  stock  of  dry  gas  of  2,600,000  cubic  feet  per  day,  derived  from  two 
of  the  wells.  Another  1,000,000  feet  has  been  unlocked  by  the  two  wells 
drilled  between  these,  on  the  Nichols  farm,  as  above  reported,  but  these 
do  not,  in  reality,  add  to  the  resources  of  the  field.  The  Harshee  and 
Bauman  wells  would,  undoubtedly,  draw  all  the  gas  from  the  territory 
which  these  outside  wells  occupy  if  time  enough  were  given  to  them. 
The  amount  of  gas  is  large  enough  and  its  rock  pressure  is  high  enough 
to  warrant  the  piping  of  the  gas  to  Ada,  but  the  presence  of  the  salt  water, 
as  above  described,  is  a  fact  of  evil  omen  in  the  field,  and  it  does  not  seem 
probable  that  if  the  gas  rock  were  drawn  upon  in  an  amount  large  enough 
to  meet  the  demands  of  the  village  of  Ada,  that  it  would  show  much 
vitality.  .  • 

The  corporation  has  voted  upon  the  purchase  of  the  wells  and  the 
piping  of  the  town.  The  proposal  was  defeated.  This  case  deserves 
special  remark,  as  it  is  the  only  instance  in  this  section  of  the  State  in 
which  a  question  of  this  kind  has  been  voted  down.  The  result  indicates 
a  more  discriminating  population  as  to  the  burdens  of  taxation  than 
most  of  our  towns  possess. 

It  is  still  undecided  whether  the  gas  will  be  conducted  into  the  town. 
The  productive  territory  which  the  Ada  company  has  discovered  is,  in  all 
probability,  continuous  with  the  rather  feeble  production  of  gas  and  oil 
that  was  developed  several  years  since  in  Orange  and  Union  townships, 
Hancock  county,  and  of  which  Cannonsburg  was  the  center  at  that  time. 

(4)  Dunkirk. — A  second  well  has  been  drilled  during  the  last  year  in 
this  village,  and  its  record  is  regarded  as  more  encouraging  than  that  of 
the  first.  It  was  located  in  the  center  of  the  village  and  drilled  at  the 
expense  of  a  prominent  business  man — Thomas  Appleman.  The  drift 
was  but  seven  feet  thick,  the  casing  was  set  at  410  feet,  and  the  Trenton 
limestone  was  found  at  1,370  feet,  or  420  feet  below  tide.  Gas  appeared  as 
soon  as  the  limestone  was  reached  and  oil  presently  followed.  The 
column  was  lifted  above  the  top  of  the  derrick,  and  it  was  estimated  that 
a  hundred  barrels  of  oil  flowed  out  before  it  was  brought  under  control. 
Territory  was  at  once  leased  with  reference  to  further  tests  for  oil. 

(J)   GAS  WELLS  OF  SENECA  COUNTY. 

The  present  record  of  this  county  is  substantially  confined  to  two 
towns,  viz.,  Tiffin  and  Fostoria. 

(1)  Tiffin. — The  drilling  that  was  so  energetically  carried  forward  in 
1886  and  1887  in  Tiffin  and  its  immediate  vicinity,  in  the  search  for  gas 
and  oil,  exhausted  itself  in  the  opening  months  of  1888.  It  became  at 


THE    TRENTON     LIMESTONE.  187 

last  apparent  to  all  that  the  Trenton  limestone  underlying  Tiffin  fur- 
nished too  shallow  a  leservoir  to  give  any  good  promise  of  supplying  the 
town.  At  the  longest,  five  weeks  of  open  flow  of  the  wells  that  yielded 
at  the  outset  dry  gas,  brought  oil  or  salt  water,  or  hoth,  into  every  one ; 
nor  was  the  oil  in  large  enough  amount  to  justify  the  drilling  of  wells  to 
obtain  it.  The  Loomis  and  Nyman  wells  produced  continuously  for  a 
year  or  more  from  two  to  three  barrels  of  oil  per  day.  From  another  well 
a  production  of  twelve  to  fifteen  barrels  per  day  was  reported  in  1887,  but 
how  long  the  flow  was  continued  at  this  rate  is  not  known.  These  were 
probably  the  best  records  of  the  field  in  this  particular.  The  necessities 
of  the  town  in  the  way  of  fuel  were  provided  for  at  an  early  date  in  this 
history,  by  the  introduction  of  gas  from  Hancock  county  through  the 
pipe  lines  of  the  Tiffin  Natural  Gas  Company,  a  branch  of  the  North- 
western Ohio  Company,  which  represents  the  interests  of  the  Standard 
Oil  Company  in  this  field.  Gas  was  also  furnished  for  manufacturing 
purposes  by  this  company,  but  the  rates  at  which  the  large  consumers 
were  supplied  were  in  reality  based  on  the  rates  for  domestic  use,  some 
abatement,  of  course,  being  made  for  the  largest  consumption.  Tiffin 
could  not,  of  course',  compete  on  these  terms  with  Findlay,  Fostoria, 
Bowling  Green,  and  a  number  of  smaller  towns  that  had  found  gas  near 
their  own  borders  and  that  were  offering  it,  if  not  as  free  as  air  to  all 
manufacturers  that  would  locate  in  them,  still  at  a  merely  nominal  cost, 
no  matter  how  large  the  amount  required  or  how  wasteful  the  use  might 
be.  The  project  for  a  city  line  to  supply  gas  to  manufacturers  on  as 
favorable  terms  as  their  neighbors  were  oflering  began  to  be  agitated.  As 
is  usual  in  such  cases  the  plan  found  favor  with  the  majority  of  the 
voters,  and  when  the  question  was  brought  before  them  for  action  there 
was  practical  unanimity  in  its  adoption.  Unusual  ingenuity  was  dis- 
played in  finding  authority  for  using  public  funds  for  these  purposes  in 
existing  legislation,  but  new  legislation  was  subsequently  secured.  The 
city  gas  trustees  at  once  proceeded  to  lease  and  purchase  gas  lands,  proved 
or  prospective,  to  drill  wells  and  to  lay  a  pipe  line  to  the  city.  Their 
lands  are  located  in  Bloom  and  Perry  townships,  Wood  county,  with  a 
single  tract  in  Cass  township.  The  lands  leased  in  Bloom  township  are 
mainly  in  excellent  territory,  but  they  are  held  in  comparatively  small 
tracts,  and  therefore  interlock  with  the  gas  lands  of  other  companies, 
especially  with  those  of  the  Northwestern  Ohio  and  the  Fostoria  com- 
panies. Two  of  the  purchased  tracts,  consisting  of  forty  and  eighty 
acres  respectively,  are  situated  in  the  very  heart  of  the  best  production. 
The  Bloom  township  lands  of  the  company  aggregate  333  acres,  on  which 
seven  wells  are  already  drilled.  The  lands  leased  in  Perry  township  can 
scarcely  be  said,  in  the  light  of  present  knowledge,  to  be  gas  lands  at  all. 


I 88  GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO. 

The  city  paid  $20,000  cash  for  the  gas  rights  of  about  1,200  acres.  Nine 
wells  have  been  drilled  on  the  lands,  but  most  of  them  are  already  re- 
jected from  the  line,  because  of  the  oil  and  water  that  they  produce. 
The  property  that  the  city  paid  $20.000  for  would  have  been  counted  dea.r 
at  the  time  by  any  competent  judge  of  the  facts  at  one-tenth  part  of  this 
amount. 

The  city  pipe  line  is  nineteen  miles  in  length,  and  consists  of 
fifteen  miles  of  eight-inch  pipe,  and  four  miles  of  six  inch  pipe.  Besides 
this  there  are  three  miles  of  four-inch  pipe  connecting  the  wells  and  the 
line.  The  character  of  the  supply  has  already  been  discussed  in  the  de- 
scription of  the  Wood  county  field.  The  expenditures  of  the  city,  in  this 
interest,  already  aggregate  $250,000,  according  to  the  testimony  of  the  trus- 
tees. Free  gas  was  promised  to  the  large  companies  for  terms  of  three  to 
five  years,  and  therefore  the  income  derived  from  the  gas  is  very  small. 
It  is  all  used  in  keeping  up  the  supply. 

In  the  establishment  of  manufactures,  on  the  new  basis,  Tiffin  has 
been  highly  successful.  There  are  now  thirty  or  more  manufacturing 
establishments,  of  various  grades,  that  are  dependent  on  the  city  lines. 
This  list  includes  three  gla*s  factories,  viz.,  the  Beatty  Glass  Works,  the 
Tiffin  Glass  Works,  and  the  Belgian  Glats  Works.  The  Beatty  Works 
manufacture  table  ware  exclusively.  Their  plant  consists  of  the  ( quiva- 
lent  of  forty-five  glass  pots,  and  the  establishment  is  the  most  complete  in 
this  line  of  manufactures  in  the  country.  The  Tiffin  Glass  Works  also 
manufacture  table  ware,  the  equipment  being  based  on  twelve  glass  pots. 
The  plant  of  the  Belgian  works  is  an  eight-pot  factory.  Its  specialty  is 
colored  or  Venetian  glass,  and  in  this  manufacture  it  is  very  successful. 
The  total  number  of  glass  pots  is  sixty-five. 

The  Brewer  pottery  is  a  large  establishment,  built  and  equipped  ac- 
cording to  the  best  knowledge  of  our  time.  In  it  the  most  successful  ex 
perience  and  the  highest  skill  of  the  eastern  potteries  are  represented.  It 
makes  use  of  about  450,000  cubic  feet  of  gis  per  day.  A  brief  account  of 
it  will  be  given  in  a  succeeding  chapter.  Among  the  remaining  industries 
that  rely  upon  the  city  gas  line  there  may  be  named  the  three  brick 
yards  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  common  brick ;  a  Pulp  and  Paper 
Works  Company,  that  uses  twenty  tons  of  straw  per  day,  and  that  makes 
use  of  five  120  horse- power  boilers;  two  flouring  mills,  with  a  daily 
united  capacity  of  three  hundred  barrels;  a  nail  factory,  and  many  other 
industries.  One  of  the  brick  yards  turns  out  four  million  bricks  in  a 
season.  Draining  tile  is  also  manufactured  in  the  same  yards.  These 
works  pay  fifty  cents  per  thousand  for  the  gas  used  in  burning  brick. 
The  kilns  of  one  company  produce  200,000,  and  of  another,  340,000  A 
rough  estimate,  based  on  approximate  measurements,  made  the  amount 


THE    TRENTON    LIMESTONE.  !  ©9 

of  gas  used  in  firing  one  of  the  smaller  kilns,  1,500,000  cubic  feet.  At 
this  rate  the  gas  would  be  bringing  to  the  company  six  and  two-third 
cents  per  thousand,  which  is  an  ample  return  as  compared  with  charges 
for  other  lines  of  manufacturing.  Fifty  cords  of  wood  would  be  required 
for  doing  this  work,  and  on  this  basis  30,000  feet  of  gas  are  equal  to  one 
cord  of  wood.  Similar  results  have  been  obtained  in  other  calculations. 
The  gas  daily  used  in  burning  common  brick  in  Tiffin  will  probably 
amount  to  at  least  one  million  feet.  The  brick  are  sold  at  §4  per  thou- 
sand or  for  even  less  than  this.  While  this  fuel  is  much  cheaper  than 
wood  in  original  cost,  this  factor  is  only  one  among  s-rveral  in  the  saving 
that  is  effected  by  the  use  of  gas.  The  quality  of  the  product,  for 
example,  is  greatly  improved,  and  the  total  number  of  marketable  brick 
is  increased;  and,  furthermore,  the  labor  used  in  burning  the  brick  is 
muoh  reduced.  The  Tiffin  brick  yards  do  not  indicate  any  excessive 
waste  of  gas,  but  the  application  of  so  large  an  amount  of  the  finest  fuel 
of  the  world  to  purposes  so  rude  is  utterly  inexcusable.  In  fact  no  word 
in  the  language  describes  it  better  than  the  somewhat  opprobrious  word — 
vandalism.  As  has  been  abundantly  proved,  the  stocks  of  this  fuel  are 
definitely  limited  in  amount,  and  the  supply  can  not  in  any  case  be 
maintained  for  many  years.  But  under  the  conditions  ol  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  gas  at  the  public  expense  these  results  can  not,  perhaps,  be 
avoided. 

The  presence  of  this  cheap  supply  in  the  city  has  naturally  aroused 
uneasiness  and  discontent  on  the  part  of  those  who  are  paying  the  regular 
rates  for  fuel  that  the  Northwestern  Ohio  Company  has  established  in  all 
of  the  towns  that  it  supplies.  The  city  line  has,  in  fact,  displaced  the  old 
supply  in  some  of  the  public  buildings,  as  the  court-house  and  the 
orphans'  home.  The  question  very  naturally  comes  up  among  the  tax- 
payers why  the  latter  should  not  altogether  be  displaced  by  the  production 
of  the  wells  that  have 'been  drilled  at  the  public  expense,  especially  when 
it  is  held  that  the  new  supply  need  cost  but  a  fraction  of  what  the  people 
are  now  obliged  to  pay.  The  drilling  in  of  two  wells  at  Bairdstown 
during  the  present  summer  has  increased  the  available  supply  of  the  city 
to  such  an  extent  that  the  project  for  furnishing  fuel  to  the  city,  as  well  as 
to  the  manufacturers,  seems  likely  to  be  pressed.  Both  of  these  wells  are 
drilled  within  the  limits  of  the  village  corporation.  The  first  one,  which 
was  completed  in  February,  is  located  on  an  eight-acre  tract  owned  by 
Emerine  &  McMurray.  The  rock  pressure  on  June  10  was  found  to  be 
300  pounds  strong.  Its  volume,  tested  after  the  well  had  been  opened 
but  twenty  minutes,  was  found  to  be  3,737,400  cubic  feet  per  day.  A  con- 
siderable reduction  might  follow  its  open  flow  for  several  hours. 


I9O  GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO. 

The  second  well,  known  as  No.  18  of  the  Tiffin  trustees,  produced 
about  two  million  feet  per  day  from  the  casing  before  it  was  torpedoed. 
A  shot  of  sixty  quarts  increased  the  flow  to  somewhat  more  than  6,000,- 
000  feet  per  day.  Using  the  measurement  from  the  center  of  the  tubing 
(3-inch)  the  flow  is  found  to  be  6,334,500  cubic  feet.  Averaging  the  flow, 
the  figures  6,160,000  cubic  feet  are  obtained.  The  rock  pressure  is  300 
pounds.  The  Northwestern  Ohio  Gas  Company  has  drilled  a  well  within 
136  feet  of  the  Tiffin  well  and  is  apparently  duplicating  its  history.  The 
close  proximity  of  these  wells  renders  the  speedy  exhaustion  of  both 
certain. 

(2)  Fostoria. — Fostoria  has  made  great  progress  as  a  manufacturing 
center  by  means  of  the  fuel  which  has  been  brought  in  by  the  city  pipe 
line.  The  establishment  of  this  plant  was  duly  reported  in  Volume  VI, 
as  was  also  that  of  several  of  the  leading  factories  based  upon  the  gas 
supply.  The  city  has  now  expended  more  than  $50,000  in  securing  terri- 
tory, in  drilling  wells  and  in  piping  and  distributing  gas  to  consumers. 
All  the  income  of  the  plant  is  also  used  in  this  way.  But  little  new 
territory  has  been  acquired  within  the  last  two  years.  The  annual  rentals 
on  all  lands  of  fair  promise  as  gas  territory  has  been  greatly  increased 
during  this  interval.  It  now  reaches  as  high  as  $14  per  acre  for  the  best 
lands,  and  probably  averages  $8  or  $10.  The  gas  lands  of  Fostoria  are 
situated  mainly  in  Perry  and  Washington  townships,  but  a  few  small 
tracts  are  also  owned  in  Bloom  township.  These  lands  interlock  with 
those  of  the  Northwestern  and  Tiffin  Gas  Companies,  and  the  Toledo  City 
trustees  are  also  leasing  lands  in  the  same  field. 

The  company  now  has  nine  wells  in  its  line.  Two  wells  have  been 
cut  out  because  of  the  oil  that  they  produced.  In  one  of  them  oil  was 
found  when  the  well  was  first  drilled,  but  the  amount  increased  until  the 
gas  could  no  longer  be  profitably  used.  The  second  of  these  wells  pro- 
duced dry  gas  at  first,  but  began  to  throw  oil  during  the  last  year.  Two  new 
wells  have  been  recently  drilled  by  the  company  in  Section  23,  Bloom 
township,  one  of  them  a  few  rods  east  and  the  other  a  half  mile  south- 
west of  Eagleville.  Both  of  them  proved  to  be  light  wells  when  drilled, 
but  the  volume  of  the  second  was  greatly  increased  by  the  effect  of  a 
heavy  shot.  Unfortunately,  however,  salt  water  came  with  the  gas. 
Neither  of  these  wells  has  been  put  into  the  line  as  yet,  but  the  second 
will  soon  be  tried.  The  rock  pressure  in  these  wells  is  said  to  be  good,  as 
the  territory  is  comparatively  fresh.  As  in  all  other  parts  of  the  gas  field 
that  are  undergoing  development,  the  wells  of  the  city  line  show  a  gradual 
reduction  of  pressure  and  of  volume.  The  oil  and  salt  water  by  which 
the  gas  territory  is  every-where  surrounded  are  steadily  advancing,  en- 


THE   TRENTON    LIMESTONE.  1 9! 

croaching  on  the  gas  levels  and  taking  permanent  possession  of  them 
One  of  the  best  wells,  which  two  years  ago  had  a  daily  capacity  of  three 
and  one-half  million  feet,  is  now  reduced  to  one  and  one-half  million 
feet,  a  loss  of  57  per  cent.  From  all  of  them  the  oil  a  ad  water  now  need 
to  be  removed  by  the  process  of  blowing,  two  or  three  times  a  week,  and 
some  which  are  known  to  be  in  the  worst  condition  receive  more  frequent 
attention.  The  rock  pressure  falls  least  rapidly  in  wells  that  have  the 
largest  areas  to  draw  from.  For  example,  well  No.  1  of  the  city  line  is 
nearly  a  mile  distant  from  any  other  wells  and  it  maintains  a  better  press- 
ure than  the  rest.  It  is,  however,  overrun  with  water  and  oil  to  the 
extent  of  four  or  five  barrels  per  week.  The  actual  figures  as  to  rock  press- 
ure are  not  given  by  the  company.  The  trustees  have  no  knowledge  of 
the  total  amount  of  gas  which  their  wells  supply,  nor  of  the  quantity 
used  by  any  one  of  the  several  establishments  that  are  depending  on  their 
line.  The  main  effort  is  to  keep  the  pressure  in  the  line  to  the  point 
demanded  by  the  factories.  This  task  must,  of  course,  be  an  increasingly 
difficult  one  and  deficiencies  can  not  be  overcome  in  the  future  as  easily 
as  they  have  been  thus  far  by  drilling  new  wells,  for  the  reason  that  the 
levels  of  oil  and  water  are  rising  in  the  entire  territory  as  the  gas  is  with- 
drawn from  it.  The  last  wells  drilled  furnish  striking  testimony  on  this 
point. 

The  principal  manufacturing  establishments  now  depending  on  the 
Fostoria  line  are  the  following,  viz. :  The  Mambourg  Glass  Works,  win- 
dow glass,  ten  pots;  The  Crocker  Glass  Works,  window  glass,  ten  pots; 
The  Fostoria  Glass  Company,  table  ware,  twelve  pots;  The  Nickel  Plate 
Glass  Company,  table  ware,  sixteen  pots;  The  Calcine  Glass  Works,  win- 
dow glass,  one  tank — equal  by  schedule  to  eighteen  pots ;  The  Butler  Art 
Glass  Works,  established  here  in  1888,  was  recently  burned  and  a  division 
of  the  local  interests  that  had  been  united  in  it  was  called  for  by  the  stock- 
holders. Out  of  it  two  glass  companies  have  been  organized,  viz.,  The 
Butler  Glass  Company,  chimneys  and  bottles — one  tank  equal  to  ten  pots, 
and  The  Fostoria  Lamp  and  Shade  Company,  sixteen  pots.  The  total 
glass  production  is  thus  counted  as  92  pots. 

In  addition  to  the  glass  factories  there  are  dependent  on  the  line  the 
Cadwallader  Milling  Company ;  the  Electric  Light  Works ;  the  Fostoria 
Buggy  Company;  the  Lloyd  Lime  Kilns,  three  in  number,  and  two  estab- 
lishments for  the  manufacture  of  common  brick  and  draining  tile.  The 
milling  company  pays  $300  a  year  for  its  gas ;  the  electric,  light  works 
are  rated  at  300  horse  power,  and  the  lime  kilns  pay  about  $350  per  annum. 
These  prices  show  that  the  rates  for  gas  are  scarcely  more  than  nominal. 
An  annual  rate  of  $20  per  pot  was  fixed  for  the  first  glass  works,  but  the 
later  establishments  have  been  called  to  pay  twice  this  amount.  The 


GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO. 

largest  amount  paid  by  any  one  establishment  is  $500  per  year.  Brick 
have  been  thus  far  burned  at  the  rate  of  fifteen  cents  per  thousand,  and 
tile  at  eight  dollars  per  kiln. 

On  the  basis  of  calculation  employed  in  the  Findlay  field,  the  gas 
used  in  Fostoria  in  glass  manufacture  is,  at  the  lowest  possible  figure, 
5,500,000  cubic  feet  daily.  The  window  glass  companies  that  pay  £20  per 
pot  for  tVieir  annual  rate  obtain  for  this  sum  not  less  than  21,OCO,000  feet, 
and  accordingly  the  rate  is  f-omething  like  one  mill  for  1,000  feet.  The 
charge  for  the  gas  daily  used  in  each  glass  pot  is  about  five  cents. 
The  amount  of  gas  used  in  the  Fostoria  glass  works  every  day,  if  sold 
for  domestic  use  in  the  surrounding  cities  that  are  eager  to  avail  them- 
selves of  it  and  that  expect  to  pay  at  least  ten  cents  per  thousand  feet, 
would,  at  this  lowest  rate,  command  $550.  The  monthly  income  would 
be  $16,500,  and  the  annual  income  $198,000. 

The  total  amount  of  gas  used  in  Fostoria  when  all  the  manufacturing 
establishments  are  in  operation  can  not  fall  below  7,000,000  feet  per  day. 
It  may  greatly  exceed  this  amount. 

The  Fostoria  pipe  line  consists  of  six  to  seven  miles  of  six-inch 
wrought-iron,  ecrew-joint  pipe,  extending  from  the  Avells  to  the  corpora- 
tion. Diverging  from  this  point  two  lines  of  the  same  size  are  carried  out 
that  extend  completely  around  the  town,  united  on  the  opposite  side  from 
the  point  of  departure. 

A  further  account  of  the  gas  supply  will  be  found  in  a  preceding  sec- 
tion describing  Perry  township,  Wood  county. 

(.7)      GAS   WELLS   OF    PUTNAM    COUNTY. 

One  other  attempt  to  find  and  utilize  natural  gas  must  be  given  at 
this  point.  The  village  of  Ottawa  is  at  the  present  time  engaged  in  search- 
ing for  natural  ga=i,  to  be  used  as  a  public  fuel  supply.  The  search  is  being 
conducted  at  the  point  of  the  drill  b£  the  common  council  of  the  village 
corporation.  Authority  has  been  granted  by  the  S  ate  Lf  g  slature  to  bond 
the  vilhge  for  $45,000  for  this  purpose.  The  proposition  was  submjtted 
to  the  people  and  a  well  nigh  unanimous  decision  in  favor  of  it  was  given, 
the  opposition  making  less  than  four  per  cent,  of  the  total  vote. 

The  council  has  taken  leases  on  several  'arms  lying  three  or  four  miles 
to  the  southeast  of  the  village,  and  it  has  thus  far  drilled  six  wells  at  an 
outlay  of  something  more  than  six  thousand  dollars;  the  first  wtll  of  the 
series,  however,  being  located  in  obedience  to  the  popular  demand  nearer 
to  the  village  limits.  This  immediate  territory  had  already  been  tested 
by  three  or  more  wells  and  no  value,  whatever,  had  been  found  in  it.  The 
new  well  confirmed  the  unfavorable  judgment  of  this  location.  Of  the 


THE   TRENTON    LIMESTONE.  1 93 

remaining  wells  only  two  have  given  any  promise  of  service,  viz.,  Nos.  3 
and  5.    Both  of  them  are  situated  in  the  valley  of  Riley  Creek. 

Well  No.  3  was  drilled  in  the  fall  of  1889.  When  the  Trenton  was 
reached  at  a  depth  of  1,290  feet,  or  about  600  feet  below  tide,  a  small  vol- 
ume of  gas  was  found  in  it.  The  gas  was  at  once  turned  to  account  in 
drilling  other  wells  near  by.  Its  entire  volume  has  been  used  for  that 
purpose  almost  uninterruptedly  up  to  the  present  time,  and  the  well  has 
naturally,  been  considerably  reduced  by  this  treatment  in  volume  and 
production.  Measured  on  June  27,  1890,  its  volume  was  found  to  be 
110,880  cubic  feet  per  day,  and  the  rock  pressure  rose  to  forty  pounds  in 
thirty  minutes.  The  supply  of  gas  is  insufficient  for  running  the  boiler 
with  which  the  drilling  of  the  new  wells  is  being  done.  Well  No.  4  was 
drilled  deeper  into  the  Trenton  than  No.  3,  and  a  few  feet  below  the  gas 
horizon  oil  was  reached.  These  two  forms  of  petroliferous  accumulation 
are  perilously  close  in  the  entire  region  when  either  is  found,  and  thus 
far  there  has  not  been  developed  enough  of  either  to  justify  the  outlays 
necessary  to  obtain  it.  This  well  is  not  counted  of  any  value. 

Well  No.  5  was  but  little  removed  from  the  list  of  dry  holes  until  it 
was  shot  with  forty  quarts  of  nitro-glycerine.  By  the  effect  of  the  torpedo^ 
a  light  flow  of  gas  was  developed.  The  volume  of  the  well,  after  being 
opened  for  one  hour,  was  found  to  be  148,300  cubic  feet  per  day ;  and  its 
rock  pressure,  under  the  same  conditions,  increased  as  follows : 

100  pounds  in  5  minutes. 
200  pounds  in  23  minutes. 
250  pounds  in  60  minutes. 
290  pounds  in  15  hours. 

The  well  would  undoubtedly  have  fallen  to  lower  figures  in  produc- 
tion if  it  had  been  left  open  for  a  longer  time,  and  its  rock  pressure  would 
have  increased  correspondingly  slower.  No  use  has  been  made  of  this  well, 
but  it  has  probably  been  affected  by  the  draft  on  No.  3,  which  is  not  more 
than  1,500  feet  distant  from  it.  Several  other  wells  in  the  same  general 
district  are  now  under  contract.  In  all  these  cases,  the  Trenton  limestone 
is  found  at  a  depth  of  about  1,300  feet  below  the  surface,  and  the  sections 
of  the  wells  are  normal  in  all  respects.  The  two  wells  producing  gas  show 
a  small  amount  of  relief  in  the  surface  of  the  Trenton  limestone,  as  com- 
pared with  the  other  wells. 

If  sufficient  gas  is  found  to  warrant  utilization,  it  is  expected  to  bring 
it  into  town  by  a  four-inch  pipe  line.  As  there  are  less  than  a  thousand 
stoves  to  be  supplied,  and  as  the  distance  of  the  wells  from  the  corporation 
boundary  does  not  exceed  four  miles,  a  pipe  of  this  size  will  undoubtedly 
answer  the  purpose,  provided  volume  and  pressure  prove  sufficient. 
13  G. 


194  GEOLOGY   OF    OHIO. 

The  territory  is  not  such  as  would  invite  the  investments  of  any  per- 
son acquainted  with  the  general  business  of  drilling  wells  for  oil  and  gas, 
and  at  the  same  time  conversant  with  the  character  of  the  northwestern 
Ohio  production,  as  thus  far  developed.  In  other  words,  no  individual 
.and  no  private  company  would  think  for  a  moment  of  doing  with  their 
own  means  what  the  municipal  corporation  is  now  doing.  The  balance  of 
probabilities  against  the  success  of  the  undertaking  is  altogether  too  great 
to  allow  those  who  have  only  their  own  money  to  spend  to  drill  a  dozen 
wells,  one  after  the  other,  in  a  region  that  has  been  as  fully  tested  as  this. 
The  territory  presents  every  appearance  of  belonging  to  that  large  division 
of  northwestern  Ohio,  in  which  the  Trenton  limestone  is  found  slightly 
petroliferous,  but  without  accumulations  of  either  oil  or  gas  that  can  be 
made  to  repay  exploitation. 

SECTION  II. 

OIL  PRODUCTION  OF  THE  TRENTON  LIMESTONE,  1888  TO  1890. 

The  Trenton  limestone  is  by  far  the  most  important  single  source  of 
petroleum  in  the  United  States  at  the  present  time.  The  oil  production  of 
Pennsylvania,  New  York  and  West  Virginia  is  derived  from  not  less  than 
six  distinct  strata  of  sandstone  of  very  unequal  value  as  oil  rocks ;  and 
these  several  strata  are  distributed  through  several  thousand  feet  of  the 
Devonian,  Sub-carboniferous  and  Carboniferous  series  of  these  respective 
States.  Of  these  petroleum-bearing  rocks  the  Bradford  sand  has  undoubt- 
edly been  the  most  important,  but  the  period  of  its  greatest  production  has 
long  passed.  It  is  hot  necessary  to  compare  the  Bradford  field  of  twenty- 
five  years  ago  with  the  Trenton  limestone  of  to-day ;  but  it  is  certain  that 
neither  it  nor  any  other  of  the  great  sand-rocks  of  the  eastern  field  is  now 
producing  or  can  be  made  to  produce  one-half  as  much  oil  as  this  last 
found  source,  which  proves  to  be  a  magnesian  limestone  of  Lower  Silurian 
age.  The  oil-producer  and  the  geologist  alike  find  it  hard  to  adjust  them- 
selves to  these  surprising  facts. 

The  discovery  of  oil  in  the  Trenton  limestone  was  made  early  in  1885 
in  the  Paper-mill  well  at  Lima.  Gas  in  large  amount  had  been  found  in 
the  same  stratum  a  few  months  before  at  Findlay  and  Bowling  Green,  and 
the  discovery  of  oil  was  consequently  only  a  question  of  time.  No  stratum 
is  known  in  the  geological  scale  that  furnishes  gas  in  large  amount  which 
does  not,  also,  in  some  part  of  its  extent,  produce  oil  as  well. 

An  account  of  the  remarkable  development  of  the  new  oil  fields  was 
given  in  Volume  VI,  Geology  of  Ohio,  bringing  the  history  down  to  the 
date  of  issue,  viz.,  to  the  close  of  1887.  At  this  time  there  were  three 
principal  centers  of  production,  viz.,  the  Findlay  field,  the  Lima  field,  in- 


THE    TRENTON    LIMESTONE.  195 

eluding  a  continuous  development  through  several  townships  of  Auglaize 
and  Mercer  counties,  and  the  North  Baltimore  field.  Oil  had  also  been 
found  at  various  other  points,  but  in  comparatively  small  quantity. 
Two  or  three  light  wells  were  being  worked  at  Bradner,  and  at  Tiffin  and 
Gibsonburg  a  little  oil  was  also  produced  with  the  gas,  which  was  being 
utilized  at  these  points,  and  which  was  the  main  object  of  the  search. 

When  in  1886,  an  oil  field  of  considerable  dimensions  became  ap- 
parent in  northwestern  Ohio,  the  Standard  Oil  Company  appeared  upon 
the  stage  under  the  name  of  the  Buckeye  Pipe  Line,  assuming  the  relation 
to  the  new  field  that  it  usually  bears  to  oil  fields,  in  purchasing,  storing 
and  transporting  the  oil.  It  would  not  have  consisted  at  all  with  the 
established  policy  of  this  company  to  allow  a  field  of  such  importance  as 
this  promised  to  become  to  be  developed  outside  of  its  control.  It  also 
began  about  the  same  time  an  extensive  refinery  at  Lima.  Other  com- 
panies also  undertook  the  refining  of  the  new  oil  during  1886  and  1887. 
One  such  refinery  was  established  at  Findlay,  two  at  Lima,  one  at  Brad- 
ner, and  a  previously  existing  refinery  at  Toledo  was  set  to  work  on 
Trenton  limestone  oil. 

The  price  that  the  Standard  Oil  Company  established  for  the  oil 
when  the  field  was  first  opened  was  forty  cents  a  barrel,  Bradford  oil  at 
that  time  ranging  between  eighty  and  ninety  cents.  But  it  was  soon 
found  that  oil  production  in  the  new  territory  required  very  small  outlay 
as  compared  with  production  in  the  eastern  fields.  Not  more  than  400 
feet  of  casing  was,  as  a  rule,  required,  and  the  depth  of  the  wells  never 
exceeded  1,300  feet.  Sections  in  which  large  production  was  possible 
were  beginning  to  tje  reached.  During  the  latter  months  of  1886,  10,- 
000  barrels  of  oil  were  brought  to  the  surface  every  day,  and  the  Pipe 
Line  Company  was  kept  busy  in  tank  building.  Two  thirty  thousand- 
barrel  tanks  were  needed  every  week  to  cover  the  production. 

The  state  of  things  in  the  new  oil  field  during  the  last  half  of  1887, 
and  the  beginning  of  1888,  can  not  be  better  shown  than  in  the  following 
extract  from  a  report  made  by  the  author  in  the  summer  of  1887,  and 
published  in  the  Eighth  Annual  Report  of  the  United  States  Geological 
Survey  : 

''  PRODUCTION  AND  PROMISE  OP  THE  FIELD. 

"Drilling  in  the  Lima  field  was  begun  in  the  spring  of  1885.  It  was  a  year,  how- 
ever, before  the  oil  producers  entered  vigorously  upon  its  development.  The  wells  on 
the  Shade  farm,  south  of  the  town,  made  the  first  significant  departure  from  the  day  of 
small  things  with  which  the  work  was  begun.  All  these  were  flowing  wells.  The  early 
summer  of  1886  marked  the  beginning  of  rapid  development.  The  production  of  single 
wells  increased  from  sixty  and  seventy  barrels  to  100  barrels  a  day  ;  aad  presently,  in  the 
Hume  well,  to  250  barrels  in  a  day,  and  a  little  later  to  700  barrels  in  the  Tunget  well.  To 
the  southward  great  wells  were  presently  found.  The  Ridenour  farm,  the  Hueston,  Moore, 


196  GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO. 

Ditzler,  Ballard,  Lehman,  Goodenow  and  Spear  farms  all  became  centers  of  large  and 
certain  production.  By  October  1  the  character  of  the  field  had  come  into  clear  view 
as  second  to  none  yet  found  in  the  United  States  in  volume  of  production.  During 
September,  1886,  thirty-three  wells  were  added  to  the  128  previously  drilled.  Of  these 
one  was  dry.  *  The  total  production  of  the  new  wells  was  2,455  barrels  daily,  shewing  an 
average  of  seventy-five  barrels  to  the  well.  Six  of  these  wells  were  credited  with  an 
aggregate  production  of  1,300  barrels  daily.  In  November  a  number  of  other  great 
wells  were  brought  in,  and  the  Douglas,  Crumrine,  Boop,  Mechling,  McLain  and  other 
farms  were  added  to  the  prolific  areas.  A  well  drilled  during  this  month  on  the  Alonzo 
McLain  farm,  Section  13,  Shawnee  township,  reached  a  production  for  its  first  day  of 
nearly  or  quite  1,000  barrels.  This  well  is  still  flowing  at  the  rate  ef  150  barrels  a  day. 
The  largest  production  in  the  Lima  field  for  a  single  day  is  that  of  a  well  on  the  J.  W. 
Eidenour  farm,  Section  18,  Perry  township.  It  put  into  tanks  in  the  first  twenty-four 
hours,  2,760  barrels  of  oil.  Its  rate  was  115  barrels  per  hour. 

"  Of  twenty  wells  completed  in  November,  one  was  dry,  and  nine  produced  daily 
100  barrels  each  or  more.  Of  twenty-two  wells  completed  in  December,  one  was  dry, 
and  eleven  wells  produced  daily  100  barrels  each  or  more.  The  eleven  wells  of  this- 
group  are  credited  with  2,500  barrels  daily. 

"On  January  1,  1887,  according  to  the  published  accounts,  there  were  in  the  Lima 
field  235  wells,  with  a  daily  production  of  9,488  barrels.  In  January,  thirty- five  wells 
were  added  to  the  list,  and  in  February,  thirty-four.  Of  the  latter,  sixteen  wells  were 
reparted  as  producing  from  100  to  250  barrels  daily.  It  is  unnecessary  to  follow  the 
development  in  detail  further. 

"  On  the  1st  of  May,  1887,  there  were  444  wells  in  the  Lima  field.  The  number  has 
been  increased  but  slightly  since  this  time  on  account  of  the  determined  effort  of  the 
Buckeye  Pipe  Line  Company  (the  Standard  Oil  Company)  to  restrict  production.  The 
price  of  the  oil  was  reduced  in  the  latter  part  of  1886  from  forty  cents  to  thirty-five^ 
Other  reductions,  each  of  five  cents,  have  subsequently  followed,  the  latest  being  made 
on  July  20,  when  the  price  fell  from  twenty  to  fifteen  cents  per  barrel,  at  which  point  it 
rests  at  this  writing.  These  successive  reductions,  the  company  insists,  are  justified  and 
rendered  necessary  on  several  grounds.  Prominent  among  these  is  the  bringing  in  of 
the  great  wells  of  the  North  Baltimore  field  of  Wood  county,  one  of  which  has  reached 
the  amazing  production  of  5,000  barrels  of  oil  in  a  single  day.  This  is  the  highest  mark 
of  the  Trenton  limestone. 

"  At  a  conference  between  the  producers  of  the  field  and  the  Buckeye  Pipe  Line 
Company  in  July,  1887,  it  was  agreed  that  drilling  should  be  suspended  for  the  rest  of 
the  year,  or  at  least  until  some  efficient  means  of  reducing  stocks  should  be  found,  and 
that  the  torpedoing  of  wells  should  be  entirely  abandoned.  The  average  production  for 
the  total  number  of  wells  drilled  in  the  Lima  field  does  not  reach  a  very  large  figure, 
because  the  early  wells  were  mainly  drilled  on  the  edge  of  the  field  where  the  oil  rock 
lies  near  its  dead  line.  In  the  wells  drilled  during  the  last  six  months  nearly  50  per 
cent,  have  been  of  the  100-barrel  rate,  or  even  larger.  The  average  for  the  new  wells  of 
several  separate  months  has  exceeded  seventy-five  barrels.  The  proportion  of  dry  holes 
has  been  very  small  since  the  laws  of  the  field  have  been  approximately  ascertained — 
probably  not  exceeding  five  per  cent.  The  highest  daily  production  of  the  Lima  field 
proper  is  not  far  from  14,000  barrels.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  this  production 
has  been  reached  under  the  most  adverse  circumstances.  Drilling  has  been  confined 
during  the  last  few  months  to  the  holders  of  leases  for  the  main  part,  and  it  is  being 
avoided  now,  in  many  instances,  by  the  lessors  waiving  the  terms  of  the  lease  in  this 
regard. 

"  THE  QUALITIES  AND  USES  OF  TKENTON  LIMESTONE  OIL. 

"The  Trenton  limestone  oil  is  in  all  respects  a  typical  limestone  oil,  dark  in  color 
rather  low  in  gravity,  and  containing  a  percentage  of  sulphureted  products  which 
though  small,  make  themselves  offensive  and  resist  expulsion  with  great  stubbornness. 


THE   TRENTON    LIMESTONE.  1 97 

The  extremes  of  gravity  observed  in  the  new  fields  are  thirty-one  and  forty-two  degrees, 
but  the  great  bulk  of  the  oil  is  included  between  thirty-five  and  forty  degrees. 

"  The  initial  experiments  with  Lima  oil  seemed  favorable.  The  quality  of  illuminat- 
ing oil  obtained  from  it  was  thought  to  be  equal  to  any,  though  the  percentage  was 
smaller  than  of  Pennsylvania  petroleum.  The  Standard  Oil  Company  undertook  the 
large  expenditures  necessary  in  taking  care  of  the  oil  and  afterwards  entered  upon  the 
work  of  refining  it  on  an  extensive  scale.  Independent  refineries  were  established  with 
considerable  outlay  at  Lima  and  Findlay,  and  more  recently  at  Bradner,  and  the  oil  has 
also  been  handled  at  a  Toledo  refinery  in  small  quantities. 

"  With  all  this  expenditure  and  experience  we  are  still  unable  to  make  positive  and 
final  statements  as  to  the  value  and  capabilities  of  the  oil  on  account  of  the  diametrically 
opposite  testimony  that  is  given  by  different  parties  in  the  field.  The  Standard  Oil  Com- 
pany has  planted  in  the  new  field  more  than  $2,000,000,  and  it  now  avers,  through  its 
representatives  that  it  has  made  a  great  mistake,  and  declares  that  the  numerous,  exten- 
sive, and  very  costly  experiments  conducted  by  it  in  seeking  to  obtain  from  Lima  crude 
an  illuminating  oil  that  will  fairly  compete  with  Pennsylvania  oil  in  open  market  hare 
resulted  in  complete  and  utter  failure.  The  company  declares  that  out  of  200,000  barrrels 
refined  by  them  no  oil  that  could  be  successfully  used  as  an  illuminant  has  been  obtained. 
Representatives  of  the  company  further  declare  that  the  only  use  that  they  have  been 
able  to  find  for  Lima  oil  is  for  fuel,  and  to  its  introduction  for  this  purpose  they  are  now 
directing  all  their  efforts.  They  have  more  than  2,000,000  barrels  already  stored  in  the 
field,  and  the  stocks  are  increasing  at  the  rate  of  15,000  to  20,000  barrels  a  day.  This 
increase  has  gone  forward  in  spite  of  the  severest  attempts  at  repression  in  the  reduction 
of  the  market  price  of  the  oil. 

"There  are,  however,  other  companies  in  the  field  engaged  in  refining  Lima  oil,  and 
their  testimony  is  not  of  the  same  tenor  as  that  already  quoted.  They  declare  that  they 
are  obtaining  satisfactory  results  in  refining  Trenton  limestone  oil.  They  claim  that 
the  deodorization  of  the  oil  is  practicable,  and  that  the  cost  of  the  process  is  not  excessive- 
One  of  the  companies  so  engaged  reports  as  the  result  of  its  operations,  when  fresh  oil  of 
40°  Baume  at  60°  Fahr.  is  treated,  50  per  cent,  kerosene  of  150°  fire  test,  10  per  cent, 
gasoline,  and  the  same  proportions  and  qualities  of  lubricating  oils  that  are  obtained 
from  Pennsylvania  crude.  The  quality  of  the  illuminating  oil  is  excellent.  A  larger 
percentage  of  loss  than  in  eastern  oil  is  admitted,  but  it  is  alleged  that  the  loss  is  not 
excessive. 

"  Laboratory  experiments  on  crude  petroleums  can  not  always  be  trusted  to  indicate 
what  their  behavior  will  be  when  treated  in  a  large  way  for  commercial  purposes,  but 
the  results  of  a  few  analyses  recently  made  for  the  Ohio  Geological  Survey  will  be  found 
instructive. 

"  Professor  Lord,  chemist  of  the  Ohio  survey,  adopted  the  comparative  method  im 
his  examinations.  Crude  oil  from  the  Macksburgh  field,  the  character  and  yield  of 
which  are  well  known,  and  crude  Trenton  limestone  oil  from  northwestern  Ohio,  were 
subjected  to  the  same  treatment  with  the  following  results,  viz. : 

Macksburgh  oil,  Trenton  limeston'e  oil, 
41  gravity.  39  gravity. 

Per  cent.  Per  cent. 

Naptha 16.  15. 

Kerosene,  between  .73  and  .83 38.  33. 

Sulphur .025  .535 

"The  distillation  was  arrested  before  "cracking"  had  begun.  It  is  known  that  the 
Macksburgh  oil  can  be  made  by  the  latter  process  to  yield  a  total  of  seventy  to  eighty 
per  cent  of  distillates.  It  is  probable  that  the  limestone  oil  would  closely  follow  these 
figures  if  treated  in  the  same  way. 

"The  enormous  disproportion  in  sulphur  compounds  in  the  two  oils  can  not  fail  to 


198  GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO. 

attract  attention.     It  is  not  certain,  indeed,  that  all  of  the  sulphur  present  in  the  oils  is 
shown  in  the  analyses,  owing  to  possible  defects  in  the  method  used. 

"The  refiners  of  the  Trenton  limestone  oil  are  certainly  able  to  mask,  more  or  less 
•ompletely,  the  offensive  sulphur  compounds  by  their  several  methods  of  treatment,  but 
they  fail  in  some  of  the  processes,  at  least,  to  remove  them.  This  is  shown  in  the  follow- 
ing results  from  the  examination  of  one  sample  of  oil : 

Crude  Trenton  limestone  oil,  sulphur 553 

Crude  distillate,  sulphur 52 

Refined  distillate  (deodorized)  sulphur 36 

The  results  of  the  chemical  examination  here  reported  seem  to  show  that  the  new 
petroleum  has  about  the  same  character  as  the  Macksburgh  oil,  except  in  its  high  per- 
centage of  sulphur  compounds. 

"In  considering  the  conflicting  testimony  to  which  attention  has  now  been  called, 
we  should  not  lose  sight  of  the  fact  that  very  large  interests  and  investments  elsewhere 
are  involved  in  the  success  or  failure  of  the  Lima  oil,  nor  of  the  further  fact  that  de- 
•idedly  the  greatest  oil  field  of  the  United  States,  so  far  as  capacity  of  production  is  con- 
cerned, is  coming  into  view  in  the  Lima  district,  to  the  equal  surprise  of  practical  and 
scientific  observers.  Its  development  on  the  scale  that  we  are  now  compelled  to  recog- 
nize is  no  hing  less  than  revolutionary  so  far  as  the  present  interests  of  production  and 
refining  are  concerned.  An  output  of  20,000  barrels  a  day,  as  already  shown,  has  been 
forced  upon  the  Standard  Oil  Company,  which  has  undertaken  the  task  of  purchasing 
and  storing  the  petroleum  of  the  country.  The  company  has  built  more  than  a  hundred 
tanks  in  the  new  field,  each  holding  30,000  to  36,000  barrels,  and  at  the  rate  which  the 
producers  were  maintaining  in  spite  of  the  severe  repression  by  the  reduction  of  the  price 
from  forty  to  fifteen  cents  a  barrel,  the  company  found  itself  obliged  to  add  to  its  plant 
two  or  three  tanks  each  week.  In  fact,  it  became  apparent  that  Trenton  limestone  oil 
could  be  produced,  at  least  from  one  section  of  the  new  field,  with  a  profit,  even  at  fifteen 
cents  a  barrel.  No  fact  illustrates  more  significantly  the  character  and  possibilities  of 
this  production.  To  check  this  marvelous  yield  it  was,  at  length,  found  necessary  to 
warn  producers  in  substance  that  no  further  provision  would  be  made  for  new  wells 
daring  the  year  1887.  Under  this  compulsion  the  drill  was  finally  brought  to  rest. 

"  If  the  price  of  Lima  oil  had  been  maintained  at  forty  cents,  there  is  no  question 
that  the  field  would  now  be  producing  100,000  barrels  a  day.  If  the  price  should  be 
raised  to  thirty  cents,  a  production  of  50,000  barrels  a  day  would  be  reached  inside  of 
sixty  days.  These  estimates  are  certainly  within  the  limits. 

"  It  is  obvious  that  the  exploitation  of  the  new  field  is  premature.  The  markets  of 
the  country  can  not  endure  without  a  total  collapse  of  prices  the  influx  of  even  20,000 
barrels  a  day  of  crude  oil  from  new  sources,  to  say  nothing  of  thrice  or  five  times  that 
much.  It  thus  becomes  a  question  whether  the  new  oil  shall  be  temporarily  marked  down 
to  a  price  far  below  its  first  cost,  its  production  being  thereby  greatly  restricted,  or 
whether  by  a  general  leveling  of  prices  the  eastern  stocks  shall  be  ruinously  depreciated. 
The  older  centers  could  easily  be  impoverished  without  enriching  the  new.  With  such  a 
field  at  hand  as  that  which  has  now  been  described,  in  which  the  expenses  of  drilling 
and  production  are  reduced  to  their  lowest  terms,  crude. petroleum  is  certain  to  be  cheap 
in  any  case. 

"  Taking  all  the  sources  of  information  into  account,  the  following  statements  seem 
warranted  in  regard  to  the  new  petroleum  : 

"  (1)  Trenton  limestone  oil  is  inferior  to  oils  of  the  Bradford  fields,  or,  in  other 
words,  to  the  best  oils  of  Pennsylvania,  on  the  following  grounds,  viz.,  (a)  it  yields  a 
smaller  percentage  of  illuminating  oils,  unless  cracking  is  resorted  to  ;  (b)  it  contains 
a  vastly  larger  proportion  of  offensive  sulphur  compounds  which  must  be  removed  before 
the  oil  is  ready  for  market  and  which  resist  removal  with  great  stubbornness;  (c)  it 
smffers  a  larger  percentage  of  loss  in  distillation. 


THE    TRENTON    LIMESTONE.  199 

"(2)  The  best  of  the  illuminating  oil  produced  from  it  is  fully  equal  to  the  best  oil 
of  any  field.  It  endures  comparison  with  any  as  to  the  brightness,  the  clearness  and  the 
duration  of  its  flame,  but  a  good  deal  of  the  refined  oil  that  is  in  the  markets  from  this 
source  can  not  endure  the  test ;  it  crusts  the  wick  and  clouds  the  chimney  of  the  lamp 
in  which  it  is  burned. 

"  (3)  Trenton  limestone  oil  can  be  deodorized  with  small  expense,  to  this  degree  at 
least,  that  it  can  enter  the  market  without  serious  prejudice  or  disadvantage  arising  from 
its  odor.  Complete  deodorization  is  claimed  by  most  of  the  firms  that  are  engaged  in  re- 
fining it,  but  while  the  possibility  of  the  entire  removal  of  its  sulphur  compounds  is 
beyond  question,  this  result  has  not  thus  far  been  generally  attained. 

"  (4)  The  lubricating  oils  and  the  other  accessory  products  of  refining  are  of  a  high 
degree  of  excellence. 

"  (5)  The  present  price  of  Trenton  limestone  oil,  viz.,  fifteen  cents  a  barrel,  is  in  no 
way  a  measure  of  its  real  value  as  compared  with  the  present  price  of  Pennsylvania  oil. 

"  There  is  one  use  of  Lima  crude  oil  in  regard  to  the  success  of  which  all  are  agreed, 
via.,  its  use  as  fuel.  It  is  excellently  adapted  to  the  convenient  and  economical  produc- 
tion of  heat  for  almost  every  purpose.  It  has  been  applied  to  simple  uses,  as  to  cooking 
and  heating  stoves,  and  also  to  the  production  of  power  in  stationary  steam-boilers  and 
to  locomotives  to  a  small  extent ;  to  the  heating  of  gas  retorts,  to  puddling  and  reheating 
furnaces,  and  to  various  other  uses.  In  all  these  it  has  demonstrated  its  adaptability 
and  great  value. 

"  Various  processes  for  using  it  safely  and  conveniently  have  been  devised,  and  there 
in  probably  room  for  important  additions  in  this  field.  Four  barrels  of  oil  are  counted 
equal  to  one  ton  of  soft  coal.  At  the  present  price  of  crude  oil  it  could  scarcely  be  dis- 
placed by  natural  gas  where  it  is  introduced.  The  crude  oil  ought  to  be  deodorized 
before  being  applied  to  any  of  the  purposes  already  named,  but  this  has  not  yet  been 
done  where  it  is  used  for  fuel,  except  in  an  experimental  way.  There  seems  to  be  no 
doubt  that  this  result  can  be  easily  accomplished. 

"  If  all  other  and  higher  uses  of  petroleum  are  dropped  entirely  out  of  the  account 
it  is  still  evident  that  an  enormous  stock  of  fossil  power,  vastly  greater  than  all  that  can 
furnished  by  the  newly  discovered  natural  gas  fields  of  this  part  of  the  country,  is  made 
available  to  us  in  the  Trenton  limestone  oil." 

The  foregoing  statements  show  the  estimation  in  which  Lima  oil  was 
held  in  1887  : 

During  1888,  a  rapidly  extending  market  was  found  for  crude  Lima 
oil.  Excellent  modes  for  burning  it  were  brought  into  use,  and  an  unlim- 
ited demand  could  well  enough  have  been  created  for  it  at  the  price  that 
then  prevailed.  The  Buckeye 'Pipe  Line  (Standard  Oil  Company)  con- 
structed an  eight-inch  line  from  Lima  to  Chicago,  the  length  of  the  line 
to  the  city  limits  being  208  miles.  The  highest  elevation  on  the  line 
is  near  the  point  of  beginning  and  but  ten  feet  higher  than  the  Lima  sta- 
tion, and  the  total  fall  is  about  300  feet,  most  of  which  is  accomplished  in 
the  last  seventy -five  miles.  There  was  but  one  pumping  station  to  begin 
with,  and  this  was  at  Lima;  but  a  second  was  soon  established  at  Laketon, 
which  is  nearly  intermediate  between  the  two  extremes.  The  maximum 
delivery  with  a  single  pumping  station  and  with  750  pounds  pressure  at 
Lima,  is  10,000  barrels  in  twenty-four  hours.  With  ordinary  pressure  of 
400  to  500  pounds,  the  delivery  ranges  from  6,000  to  8,000  barrels  per  day. 


2OO  GEOLOGY   OF    OHIO. 

Under  these  conditions  the  embargo  was  little  by  little  removed  from  the 
drill  and  its  vibrations  were  again  resumed,  and  even  multiplied. 

It  is  probable  that  the  Standard  Oil  Company  really  entertained  a 
poor  opinion  of  Lima  oil  during  the  time  above  referred  to,  while  the 
price  was  being  gradually  forced  down  from  forty  to  fifteen  cents  per 
barrel.  It  had  attained  no  better  success,  apparently,  in  refining  the  oil 
at  that  time  than  the  smaller  companies  had  achieved ;  but  there  is  no 
reason  to  doubt  that,  like  the  smaller  companies,  it  was  during  all  this 
time  getting  fair  results  in  its  great  refinery.  The  probability  is  that  it 
was  taking  the  heart  of  the  oil  for  refining,  satisfying  itself  with  a  small 
percentage,  and  turning  over  the  bulk  to  the  fuel  department. 

But  a  change  soon  appeared  in  its  policy.  The  independent  producers 
were  multiplying  and  growing  strong  during  1888.  The  small  refineries 
were  carrying  on  their  work  successfully.  Some  of  them  were  finding 
distant  markets  so  promising  that  the  Standard  Oil  Company  apparently 
counted  it  necessary  to  begin  to  hold  them  in  check.  The  districts  which 
they  were  occupying  were  flooded  with  anonymous  circulars,  prejudicing, 
as  far  as  possible,  their  sales.  Up  to  1888  the  Standard  Oil  Company  had 
purchased  no  oil  territory.  It  probably  gained  some  additional  knowl- 
edge in  the  course  of  this  year  as  to  the  real  value  of  Trenton  limestone 
oil,  perhaps  through  the  development  of  the  Frasch  process,  presently  to 
be  named.  At  any  rate,  it  entered  during  the  year  upon  a  policy  which 
it  had  not  heretofore  adopted  in  any  field,  that,  namely,  of  purchasing 
territory  and  producing  oil  for  itself.  The  new  departure  is  a  very  im- 
portant one,  so  far  as  Ohio  oil  is  concerned,  and  certainly  so  far  as  the 
interests  of  the  company  are  concerned.  It  puts  this  field,  which  has  far 
greater  productive  capacity  than  any  other  in  this  country,  more  entirely 
into  the  hands  of  the  great  company  than  any  other  field  has  ever  been. 
It  began  by  absorbing  the  holdings  of  the  most  sagacious  or  the  more 
fortunate  of  the  independent  companies.  The  Ohio  Oil  Company  was  in 
the  front  rank  of  the  producers.  It  held  a  large  acreage  in  the  heart  of 
the  Lima  and  Auglaize  county  fields.  The  Standard  interest  bought  out 
this  company  bodily,  and  retained  its  name  for  its  own  use  in  its  new 
capacity.  It  bought  out  the  Trenton  Rock  Oil  Company,  the  bulk  of 
whose  lands  were  in  dead  territory,  but  which  still  held  some  valuable 
production.  At  a  later  date  it  bought  out  the  Lima  Oil  Company,  the 
Sherman  Oil  Company,  and  scores  of  other  companies,  and  individual 
producers  in  every  section  of  the  field.  It  turned  its  attention  also  to 
promising:  districts  that  were  still  in  the  hands  of  the  original  land- 
owners. Where  oil  rights  could  be  obtained,  it  purchased  them  in  the 
large  way,  but  it  also  bought  many  thousands  of  acres  in  fee  simple. 
In  acquiring  new  territory  in  which  possible  production  is  indicated,  the 


THE   TRENTON     LIMESTONE.  2OI 

company  has  competed  eagerly  for  possession  during  the  last  year,  seem- 
ing to  prefer  to  deal  with  the  landowners  direct  than  with  oil  companies 
after  they  have  become  strong.  This  policy  has  been  of  wonderful  ad- 
vantage to  the  landowners. 

All  these  purchases,  let  it  be  remembered,  were  made  on  the  basis  of 
oil  at  fifteen  cents  a  barrel,  the  price  to  which  the  product  of  the  Trenton 
limestone  had  been  forced  by  the  Standard  control.  It  must  also  be  re- 
peated that  this  price  has  no  relation  to  the  intrinsic  value  of  the  oil. 
According  to  the  rates  at  which  Bradford  oil  was  selling  through  all  this 
history,  Trenton  limestone  oil  was,  in  reality,  worth  four  or  five  times 
what  was  paid  for  it.  Taking  all  these  facts  into  the  account,  it  is  easy 
to  see  that  the  Standard  Oil  Company  is  likely  to  gather  more  wealth 
from  Trenton  limestone  oil  than  all  that  it  has  accumulated  in  the  east- 
ern fields.  The  Black  Swamp  of  northwestern  Ohio  will  enormouily 
increase  the  almost  fabulous  wealth  which  it  has  accumulated  else- 
where during  the  last  twenty  years. 

All  that  was  claimed  in  regard  to  the  oil  in  1887,  in  the  passage 
quoted  on  a  preceding  page,  has  been  made  good  during  the  last  year,  and 
the  claims  still  fall  short  of  the  reality.  Trenton  limestone  oil  is  now 
yielding  as  fine  a  quality  of  illuminating  oil  as  has  ever  been  produced 
in  the  eastern  field. 

THE  REFINING  OF  TRENTON  LIMESTONE  OIL. 

(a)  Paragon  Refinery. — It  is  to  the  year  1889  that  the  great  advances  in 
the  recognition  of  the  real  value  of  the  new  oil  must  be  ascribed,  so 
far  at  least  as  the  knowledge  of  the  outside  world  is  concerned.  Much 
of  the  advance  is  due  to  the  work  of  a  single  factor,  viz.,  the  Paragon  Re- 
fining Company  of  Toledo.  This  company,  compact  in  numbers  and 
financially  strong,  thoroughly  acquainted  with  the  oil  production  and 
the  refining  interests  of  the  old  fields,  through  the  persistent  experimenta- 
tion of  one  of  its  members,  viz.,  George  H.  Van  Vleck,  of  Buffalo,  New 
York,  came  into  possession  of  a  process,  worked  out  by  Mr.  W.  H.  Pitt, 
professor  of  natural  science  in  the  Buffalo  High  School,  by  which  the  sul- 
phurous compounds  that  so  stubbornly  inhere  in  Trenton  limestone  oil, 
and  that  have  thus  far,  though  more  or  less  masked  by  the  process  of 
refining,  been  able  to  defy  expulsion,  were  at  last  eliminated  so  far  as  all 
offensive  properties  are  concerned.  The  essential  feature  of  the  Paragon 
process,  which  has  been  covered  by  a  patent,  is  the  removal  of  the  sulphur 
compounds  by  means  of  iron  filings,  while  the  oil  is  in  a  state  of  vapor. 
The  process  thus  agrees  closely  with  one  of  the  best  processes  for  the  purifi- 
cation of  ordinary  coal  gas,  and  like  the  latter  it  is  thoroughly  successful. 
A  sample  of  oil,  taken  from  the  tanks  of  the  Paragon  Company,  was  sub- 


2O2  GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO. 

milled  for  chemical  examination  to  Prof.  N.  W.  Lord,  the  chemist  of  the 
Survey.  It  was  carried  through  a  thorough  examination  for  sulphur, 
side  by  side  with  a  sample  of  the  best  eastern  oil  that  could  be  obtained 
in  Columbus,  and  the  result  showed  ,that  there  was  no  more  sulphur  in 
the  Paragon  than  in  the  Pennsylvania  oil,  though  originally  there  was 
fifteen  or  twenty  times  as  much. 

The  new  product  has  naturally  been  submitted  to  many  practical 
tests,  all  of  which  show  it  to  belong  to  the  very  highest  grade  of  illumi- 
nating oils.  When  it  passed  the  critical  and  not  over-friendly  inspection 
of  the  Oil  City  Exchange,  and  no  fault  could  be  found  with  it,  all  ques- 
tions as  to  its  quality  might  safely  be  counted  settled.  There  is  no  par- 
ticular in  which  it  shows  any  inferiority  whatever  to  the  most  perfect 
types  of  eastern  oils  and  it  has  certain  advantages  of  its  own. 

The  refinery  of  the  Paragon  Company  is  one  of  the  most  complete 
and  best  equipped  in  the  country.  It  occupies  seventeen  acres  of  land, 
well  situated  with  reference  to  railroads,  on  the  south  bank  of  the  Maumee 
River,  three  miles  below  Toledo.  At  the  present  time  there  are  in  opera- 
tion four  stills  of  400  barrels  capacity,  and  four  of  500  barrels  capacity. 
In  addition  there  are  two  steaming  tanks  of  800  and  1,200  barrels  capacity 
respectively.  The  company  owns  tank-cars  and  controls  a  considerable 
amount  of  oil-producing  territory,  largely  in  the  Gibsonburg  field.  Its 
total  holdings  are  said  to  be  about  5,000  acres.  During  1889  the  refinery 
was  able  to  purchase  as  much  oil  in  the  field  as  it  desired,  but  the  con- 
solidation of  the  producing  interests  in  the  hands  of  the  Ohio  Oil  Com- 
pany, which  has  been  reported  as  in  rapid  progress  at  the  present  time, 
will  probably  change  this  in  the  immediate  future. 

The  Paragon  Company  makes  great  claims  for  Ohio  oil  as  contrasted 
with  Pennsylvania  oil,  but  it  does  not  give  the  percentage  of  the  former 
to  the  public  as  yet.  It  affirms  that  the  recovery  of  the  parafine  from  its 
oil  is  greatly  facilitated  by  the  process  to  which  it  is  subjected  in  the 
elimination  of  the  sulphur. 

As  intimated  above,  the  process  is  owing  to  the  determined  purpose 
of  Mr.  Van  Vleck,  the  president  of  the  company,  to  master  the  treatment 
of  Ohio  oil  so  far  as  its  sulphur  is  concerned.  For  this  purpose  he  built, 
several  years  ago,  on  his  own  ground  at  Buffalo  a  miniature  refinery  and 
began  his  work,  trying  every  thing  which  his  knowledge  of  the  oil  busi- 
ness could  suggest  as  promising  success,  and  at  the  same  time  calling  in 
the  chemical  assistance  already  named.  For  six  months  he  continued 
his  experiments  without  being  able  to  report  progress.  At  last  the  sub- 
stance of  the  present  method  was  hit  upon.  After  the  process  was  per- 
fected in  the  experimental  way,  Mr.  Van  Vleck  put  it  to  a  practical  test 
in  a  small  refinery,  built  by  himself  at  an  expense  of  several  thousand 


THE    TRENTON    LIMESTONE. 

dollars.  He  found  the  results  all  that  he  expected.  The  present  com- 
pany was  then  formed  and  the  large  works  at  Toledo  were  begun.  Tested 
on  the  large  scale,  the  process  is  said  to  work  even  more  satisfactorily  than 
it  had  worked  in  either  of  the  trials  through  which  it  had  been  previously 
followed. 

(6)  The  Solar  Refinery  — The  great  refinery  of  the  Standard  Oil  Com- 
pany is  established  at  Lima.  In  its  equipment  nothing  has  been  spared 
which  could  contribute  to  the  efficiency  of  such  a  plant.  It  is  now  run- 
ning twenty-nine  stills  of  500  barrels  capacity,  with  which  are  connected 
five  agitators  and  acid  recovery  works.  The  stills  are  run  six  or  seven 
times  in  a  month.  The  company  has  introduced  within  the  last  year  a 
new  process  for  treating  the  oil  and  eliminating  the  sulphur.  It  is  known 
as  the  Frasch  process,  from  the  name  of  the  chemist  who  originated  it.  It 
is  similar  in  its  desulphurizing  agency  to  the  Paragon  process,  though 
differing  in  other  respects.  It  is  unquestionably  a  decided  advance  on 
the  previous  methods  of  treating  the  oil  in  the  Solar  works.  As  to  how 
it  compares  in  efficiency  with  the  Paragon  process,  there  has  been  no 
opportunity  to  determine  by  comparative  analyses,  but  the  resulting 
product  is  unquestionably  of  very  high  grade.  The  company  is  now 
shipping  its  product  under  the  brand  of  the  Solar  Refinery  and  it  has  no 
better  illuminating  oil.  During  the  last  year,  pipe  lines  have  been  ex- 
tended from  the  Ohio  field  to  the  great  refineries  of  Cleveland  and  Oil 
City,  and  the  company  is,  without  doubt,  assured  that  when  consumption 
permanently  overtakes  production  in  the  eastern  districts,  it  has  the  great 
resources  of  northwestern  Ohio  upon  which  to  draw  for  a  long  term  of 
years,  and  with  the  product  of  which  it  will  be  able  to  maintain  the 
highest  standard  of  quality  to  which  it  has  ever  yet  attained.  'It  is  build- 
ing near  Chicago  a  refinery  of  enormous  size  to  which  its  oil  pipe  line 
will  be  tributary. 

(c)  The  Eagle  Refinery. — This  refinery  was  established  early  in  the 
history  of  the  Lima  field  and  has  been  pursuing  the  even  tenor  of  its  way 
from  that  day  to  the  present.  Its  outfit  is  comparatively  small.  It  has 
seven  stills  of  250  barrels  capacity.  It  holds  a  process  of  its  own  in  elimi- 
nating the  sulphur.  This  is  understood  to  be  some  modification  of  the 
lead  process.  The  company  bas  made  steady  improvement  during  the 
last  two  years  in  treating  the  oil,  improving  its  quality  and  at  the  same 
time  using  constantly  smaller  percentages  of  the  necessary  chemicals.  It 
has  always  furnished  a  thoroughly  marketable  and  acceptable  oil.  By  its 
treatment  the  odor  of  the  oil  is  almost  entirely  removed.  A  little  clouding 
of  the  chimneys  still  remains,  owing  to  the  percentage  of  sulphur,  which 
resists  elimination.  In  its  practice  it  obtains  from  seven  to  ten  per  cent. 
less  of  water- white  oil  than  Pennsylvania  crude  is  expected  to  yield.  The 


2O4  GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO. 

percentage  of  benzine  is  stated  to  be  in  excess  of  twelve.  The  lubricating 
oil  and  the  residues  are  eagerly  taken  up  by  those  who  treat  these  pro- 
ducts. The  waste  is  reported  as  relatively  large. 

The  company  owns  its^own  oil  production,  at  least  in  part.  It  has 
given  over  the  use  of  oil  from  the  Lima  field  proper  altogether,  on  account 
of  its  low  gravity,  which,  as  will  be  remembered,  ranges  between  thirty- 
seven  and  thirty-nine  degrees,  B.  The  gravity  of  the  North  Baltimore  oil 
is  about  forty-one  and  one-half  degrees,  B.,  and  gives  correspondingly  bet- 
ter results  in  distillation.  The  company  has,  accordingly,  secured  a  con- 
siderable acreage  in  the  North  Baltimore  field  which,  when  fully  drilled, 
is  expected  to  produce  a  full  supply  for  the  refinery.  At  present  the  crude 
oil  is  all  received  by  tank  cars  from  the  North  Baltimore  field. 

The  refinery  has  done  its  work  thus  far  on  fifteen  cent  oil.  How  it 
will  be  affected  by  the  new  conditions  that  are  being  established  in  the 
field,  remains  to  be  seen. 

(d)  The  Peerless  Refinery. — This  establishment  is  located  at  Findlay, 
and  has  been  in  operation  with  various  fortunes  during  the  last  four  years. 
During  the  last  year  its  business  is  reported  as  very  prosperous.     It  com- 
mands its  own  oil  production,  holding  about  4,000  acres  in  the  best  part 
of  the  Findlay  field.     Its  wells  and  tanks  are  connected  with  the  refinery 
by  its  own  pipe  lines,  so  that  it  commands  every  advantage  in  this  respect. 
Findlay  oil  is  not  quite  equal  for  refining  purposes  to  North  Baltimore 
and  Gibsonburg  oil,  but  no  complaint  is  made  of  it  here.     This  company, 
like  the  one  last  named,  uses  some  modification  of  the  lead  process  in  its 
treatment  of  the  sulphur  of  the  oil.     Like  the  last,  also,  it  has  made  great 
progress  in  its  work  during  the  last  year  or  two.     It  is  now  furnishing, 
beyond  question,  an  excellent  and  popular  oil,  which  there  is  no  trouble 
in  maintaining  in  the  markets.     The  refinery  is  turning  out  about  1,500 
barrels  per  month,  and  it  proposes  to  double  its  plant  forthwith. 

(e)  The  Bradner  Refinery. — This  is  a  email  establishment,  built  in  1887, 
but  it  has  been  in  operation  for  only  a  small  part  of  the  intervening  time. 
It  was  located  at  Bradner  with  the  expectation  that  it  could  obtain  in  the 
immediate  vicinity  a  supply  of  oil  of  the  best  grade;  but  the  wells  first 
drilled  proved  small  or  failures,  and  for  several  years  the  location  hss 
worked  greatly  against  the  success  of  the  refinery.     Though  removed  but 
a  few  miles  from  the  North  Baltimore  field,  a  car  loaded  at  the  wells  of 
this  district  would  be  obliged  to  traverse  the  lines  of  three  railroads  before 
reaching  the  refinery.     But  recently  fortune  has  proved  more  kind.     An 
important  oil  field  has  been  developed  within  two  or  three  miles  of  the 
refinery,  and  the  owners  of  the  latter  have  secured  a  large  amount  of  the 
best  territory  in  the  new  district.     The  mode  of  treating  the  oil  in  this  re- 
finery, when  in  operation,  was  quite  similar  to  that  in  force  in  the  two 


THE    TRENTON     LIMESTONE.  2C>5 

last  named;  but  not  having  been  constantly  engaged,  as  the  latter  have 
been,  in  the  work  of  distillation,  it  has  probably  failed  to  keep  pace  with 
them  in  their  improvements.  The  business  of  producing  oil  for  the 
general  markets  has  proved  more  attractive  to  the  company  of  late  than 
the  work  of  refining  it.  If,  however,  the  company  should  resume  its  pro- 
per office  it  would  be  free  from  many  of  the  disadvantages  that  have 
attended  its  work  hitherto. 

From  this  brief  review  it  can  be  seen  that  the  work  of  refining  Tren- 
ton limestone  oil  has  certainly  been  mastered  by  two  companies,  and  that 
refined  oil,  of  as  high  quality  as  has  ever  been  produced  in  the  country, 
can  now  be  supplied  in  the  largest  amount  from  this  great  field.  It  has 
been  also  shown  that  several  other  companies  have  attained  fair  success  in 
their  work  under  the  conditions  that  have  heretofore  prevailed  in  the 
field.  It  has  thus  become  certain  that  Trenton  limestone  oil  is  henceforth 
to  be  valued  as  a  basis  for  refining  and  not  for  any  inferior  uses.  The 
very  fact  that  it  is  available  for  the  higher  uses  forbids  its  being  turned  to 
these  commoner  applications.  All  the  oil  suitable  for  refining  in  the 
country  will  be  needed  before  many  decades  go  by. 

OTHER  USES  OF  TRENTON  LIMESTONE  OIL. 

Reference  has  been  made  in  the  preceding  section  to  the  low  estimate 
of  value  that  was  at  first  placed  upon  the  new  petroleum,  especially  by 
the  Standard  Oil  Company.  This  company  felt  obliged  to  take  care  of 
the  product  of  the  Trenton  rock  because  it  was  oil;  but  for  the  first  two 
years  of  its  occupancy  of  the  field,  it  failed  to  realize  the  value  of  what  it 
reluctantly  found  itself  obliged  to  handle  in  the  execution  of  its  well- 
known  purpose  to  control  the  oil  interests  of  the  country.  During  this 
time  the  main  use  for  which  it  could  recommend  Lima  oil  was  for  fuel. 
As  soon  as  the  proper  means  were  contrived  for  handling  and  burning  the 
oil  conveniently  its  natural  excellence  asserted  itself,  and  all  who  used  it 
were  only  anxious  to  be  assured  that  a  supply  would-be  maintained  at 
the  rates  at  which  it  was  first  offered. 

It  was  found  equally  available  for  the  production  of  power,  the 
manufacture  of  fuel  gas  by  the  new  processes,  and  the  various  uses  of  fuel 
in  connection  with  iron- working  and  other  like  industries.  Wherever  it 
was  introduced  it  became  at  once  exceedingly  popular.  The  manufact- 
urers of  the  northwest  sent  representatives  to  the  Ohio  field  to  make 
sure,  if  possible,  by  the  purchase  of  productive  territory,  of  maintaining 
their  supply,  and  all  along  the  Atlantic  seaboard  the  appreciation  was 
equally  emphatic.  This  state  of  things  made  a  brisk  market  during. 
1889  for  fifteen-cent  oil ;  and  wherever  the  production  of  the  rock  was- 
generous,  drilling  went  forward  with  considerable  activity.  Many  com- 


2O6  GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO 

panics  were  growing  fairly  strong  by  the  sagacious  handling  of  their  own 
product  in  meeting  these  new  demands.  Several  of  the  more  enterpris- 
ing were  buying  oil  at  a  slight  advance  above  the  price  which  the  Stand- 
ard Company  had  fixed  in  1887.  One  company  kept  a  standing  offer  of 
two  and  a  half  cents  more  per  barrel  than  the  Standard  Company  would 
pay,  but  up  to  the  present  summer  it  has  never  needed  to  change  its 
rates. 

But  Trenton  limestone  oil  is  altogether  too  precious  a  form  of  stored 
power  to  be  applied  to  these  common  uses,  and  the  fact  was  discovered 
none  too  soon. 

These  common  uses  have  been  brought  about  by  the  insignificant 
figures  to  'which  the  Standard  Oil  Company  had  crowded  down  the  price 
of  the  oil,  and  by  the  missionary  work  done  by  this  company  during 
1887,  in  teaching  the  people  of  the  country  what  an  admirable  fuel  Tren- 
ton limestone  oil  is.  The  company  long  ago  discovered  its  mistake.  The 
pipe  line  that  it  had  built  to  Chicago,  ostensibly,  and  probably  at  the  out- 
set in  reality,  for  the  conveying  of  fuel  oil  was  now  made  to  terminate  in 
a  gigantic  refinery,  one  of  the  largest  in  the  United  States,  and  the  origi- 
nal pipe  line  is  being  duplicated.  It  did  not  renew  its  contracts  for  fuel 
oil  when  they  expired,  but  the  independent  producers  stood  ready  to  take 
them  up,  and  even  to  greatly  extend  this  sort  of  use.  But  as  the  oil 
began  to  be  refined  on  the  large  scale  the  refineries  themselves  needed  the 
markets  which  had  been  secured  for  the  crude  oil  for  the  benzine  that 
they  themselves  were  producing.  The  crude  oil  could  be  sold  on  the  sea- 
board and  in  the  northwest  at  about  three  cents  a  gallon,  so  long  as  the 
initial  price  was  kept  .at  fifteen  cents  a  barrel;  and  while  this  state  of 
things  was  maintained  benzine  could  not  be  sold  for  the  same  uses  at  five 
cents  a  gallon,  the  price  which  the  refineries  needed  to  obtain  for  it. 

The  remedy  for  these  conditions  was  to  be  found  either  in  marking  up 
the  price  of  Trenton  limestone  oil,  or  in  buying  out  the  independent  pro- 
ducers, or  in  both  lines  of  action.  The  independent,  companies,  under 
the  new  conditions  above  described,  were  already  paying  several  cents  per 
barrel  more  than  the  Standard  Company,  and  were  obtaining  a  growing 
share  of  the  outside  production.  Prominent  among  these  companies  were 
the  Lima  Oil  Company,  the  Shawnee  Oil  Company,  the  Sun  Oil  Company, 
the  Peerless  Refinery  Company,  ttc. 

The  first  advance  was  made  by  the  Standard  Oil  Company  on  March 
6,  1890.  It  was  then  officially  announced  that  from  that  date  the  Buck- 
eye Pipe  Line  Company  would  pay  twenty  cents  per  barrel  for  Lima  oil_ 
This  was  two  and  a  half  cents  in  advance  of  the  price  which  several  of 
the  independent  companies  were  at  the  time  paying,  but  the  latter 
instantly  raised  their  offers  above  twenty  cents.  Three  times  in  the 


THE    TRENTON    LIMESTONE.  2QJ 

course  of  the  week,  beginning  with  March  6,  advances  were  made  by  the 
Pipe  Line  Company,  leaving  the  price  at  the  end  of  the  week  twenty-, 
three  cents.  On  March  19,  it  was  raised  to  twenty  five  cents  by  the  com- 
pany. Each  advance  was  promptly  met  by  the  independent  producers. 
On  April  8,  the  Standard  price  was  raised  to  twenty-seven  and  one-half 
cents;  on  April  15,  to  thirty-two  and  one-half  cents;  and  on  May  6,  to 
thirty-seven  and  one-half  cents,  where  it  rests  at  the  present  time,  the 
independent  producers  paying  meanwhile  forty  cents  for  the  oil,  an 
advance  of  266  per  cent,  in  sixty  days. 

Side  by  side  with  this  exciting  competition,  the  absorption  of  the 
more  active  companies  has  been  going  forward.  The  Lima  Oil  Company 
was  one  of  the  first  to  receive  the  price  at  which  it  held  its  property  and 
business.  The  terms  of  the  sale  were  private,  but  it  is  fair  to  suppose 
that  the  sale  was  not  effected  on  a  basis  of  fifteen  cent  oil.  The  demands 
of  several  other  strong  companies,  it  is  said,  have  been  so  far  reached  by 
the  Standard  too  late,  the  advancing  rate  of  oil  carrying  a  constantly  in- 
creased valuation.  Of  all  these  other  companies  we  may  say,  "They  a 
little  longer  wait,  but  how  little  none  can  know."  There  is  no  reason  to 
doubt  that  the  great  corporation  will  ultimately  secure  full  control  of  the 
entire  field.  In  fact  it  has,  at  the  present,  but  very  little  more  to  do  to 
reach  this  result.  It  already  owns  either  the  oil  rights  or  the  fee  of  by 
far  the  most  important  portion  of  every  subdivision  of  the  field.  The 
independent  companies  that  are  at  work  beside  it  are  not  in  the  field  as 
representatives  of  any  high  views  of  public  policy  for  which  they  would 
be  willing  to  make  all  needful  sacrifices;  they  are  in  the  field  to  make 
money,  and  whenever  they  find  that  the  Standard  Oil  Company  will  pay 
them  more  for  their  property  than  they  can  reasonably  expect  to  make 
out  of  it  themselves,  they  will  sell.  In  addition  to  all  this,  the  pipe  lines, 
the  tankage,  and  the  refining  interests  of  the  company  would  put  the  field 
virtually  under  its  control,  even  if  it  did  not  own  a  large  preponderance 
of  the  production.  The  stocks  of  oil  that  the  company  holds  give  it 
another  overwhelming  advantage  as  against  the  independent  producer. 
There  are  now  in  the  tanks  of  the  company  in  northwestern  Ohio  more 
than  14,000,000  barrels  of  oil,  paid  for  at  fifteen  cents,  but  by  a  stroke  of 
the  pen  converted  into  thirty-seven  and  one-half-cent  oil,  and  in  reality 
worth  even  twice  this  figure.  The  company  added  more  than  three  and 
a  half  million  dollars  to  its  credit  by  simply  writing  a  new  figure  for  the 
price  of  the  oil,  and  it  could  just  as  easily  double  this  amount  in  the  same 
way.  With  such  a  leverage  in  the  hands  of  a  company  that  is  commonly 
reputed  to  know  no  scruple  in  its  treatment  of  competitors,  it  seems  im- 
possible for  individuals  or  companies  to  permanently  hold  their  place  in 
the  Ohio  field ;  they  exist  but  by  sufferance. 


2O8  GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO 

At  no  previous  time  in  the  history  of  the  field  has  there  been  any- 
thing like  the  excitement  that  sprang  up  under  the  advance  of  prices  that 
has  been  described  in  the  preceding  paragraph.  When  the  price  reached 
thirty  cents,  a  basis  was  at  last  afforded  on  which  new  territory  could  be 
explored,  and  the  driller  has  turned  to  this  work  with  great  energy.  All 
territory  that  could  be  counted  as  giving  any  promise,  either  from  its  his- 
tory or  its  situation,  has  been  covered  by  the  operator's  leases,  and  scores 
of  wells  are  now  bringing  in  their  reports  from  new  districts  and  will  con- 
tinue to  do  so  through  the  coming  season. 

Gas  is  relegated  to  decidedly  the  second  place  by  the  new  movement. 
Even  in  centers  like  Findlay  it  has  already  become  "  a  back  number  "  and 
its  rapid  decline  is  noted  without  undue  excitement,  the  speculative  ele- 
ment that  has  been  connected  with  it  in  the  past  being  now  absorbed  in 
the  fortunes  of  the  oil  field.  "  The  king  is  dead ;  long  live  the  king,"  is 
the  motto  for  the  occasion. 

The  new  movement  has  put  into  circulation  a  large  volume  of  money 
which  is  being  widely  distributed  through  a  half  dozen  counties  in  north- 
western Ohio.  Few  leases  are  now  taken  in  territory  of  any  real  promise 
without  a  bonus  ranging  from  one  to  ten,  or  even  fifteen  dollars  per  acre. 
It  is  safe  to  say  that  the  farming  community  of  these  counties  have  paid 
their  taxes  during  the  last  month  easier  than  they  ever  paid  them  before. 
It  must  also  be  added  that  through  the  same  agencies  the  districts  that  are 
being  explored  and  developed  in  the  new  interests  have  been  turned  for 
the  time  being  into  mining  camps.  An  unwholesome  and  restless  excite- 
ment prevades  whole  communities,  making  the  gains  of  ordinary  industry 
seem  insignificant,  and  giving  rise  to  widespread  speculation  and  extrava- 
gance. It  is  not  in  all  respects  an  advantage  for  a  farming  district  to  be 
turned  into  an  oil  field. 


GEOLOGICAL  FACTORS  IN  THE  OIL  PRODUCTION  OF  THE  TRENTON 

LIMESTONE. 

(a)  The  Oil  Sand. — The  oil  sand  of  the  new  horizon,  as  is  known  to 
all  who  have  made  themselves  intelligent  in  regard  to  the  subject,  is  a 
magnesian  or  dolomitic  limestone.  It  sometimes  constitutes  the  very  sur- 
face of  the  Trenton  limestone,  being  struck  by  the  drill  as  soon  as  the  latter 
has  passed  through  the  Utica  shale ;  but  it  is  more  frequently,  or  even 
generally  covered  by  a  hard  cap,  one  to  ten  feet  in  thickness.  This  cap  is 
a  true  calcareous  rock.  It  is  quite  likely  from  its  situation  to  be  brought 
up  from  the  well  by  the  explosion  of  torpedoes,  and  we  consequently  have 
many  opportunities  of  learning  its  character.  It  is  often  very  pure,  rang- 
ing between  93  and  97  per  cent,  carbonate  of  lime.  It  is  generally  highly 


THE   TRENTON    LIMESTONE.  2 09 

fossiliferous,  carrying  the  common  fossils  of  the  formation.  Wherever  it 
occurs  as  a  pure  limestone,  it  may  be  suggested  that  the  process  of  dolo- 
mitization  did  not  have  time  to  transform  it  before  the  interruption  in  the 
conditions  of  the  sea  occurred  that  is  represented  in  the  formation  of  the 
Utica  shale.  We  know  that  the  dolomite  is  in  all  cases  a  secondary  forma- 
tion, the  limestone  from  which  it  results  being  dissolved,  atom  by  atom, 
and  replaced  in  part  by  the  new  material. 

The  oil  sand  lies,  as  has  been  said,  directly  below  the  hard  cap,  when 
the  latter  is  present.  It  consists  of  one  or  two,  or  sometimes  even  more 
beds  of  porous  dolomite,  interstratified  with  the  ordinary  limestone  of  the 
Trenton  type.  The  main  or  upper  bed  varies  greatly  in  thickness.  It 
seldom,  if  ever,  exceeds  fifteen  feet,  and  a  thickness  of  three  to  ten  feet 
would  cover  most  of  its  occurrences.  This  sand  does  not,  therefore,  gener- 
ally exist  more  than  twenty  to  twenty-five  feet  below  the  top  of  the  Tren- 
ton. The  second  bed  is  often  found,  and  especially  in  the  most  productive 
portions  of  the  field,  separated  from  the  first  by  an  interval  of  fifteen  to 
twenty  feet.  The  second  sand  has  all  the  characteristics  of  the  first  and  is 
even  more  productive  than  the  first  in  many  cases.  Nearly  all  the  extra- 
ordinary flows  of  oil  that  are  reported  are  derived  from  the  lower  stratum. 
The  second  oil  streak  especially  characterizes  the  Wood  county  field. 

(6)  Presence  of  Salt  Water. — The  salt  Avater  occupies  a  very  different 
place  in  the  new  oil  field  from  what  it  holds  in  the  eastern  fields.  In  the 
latter  its  appearance  is  generally  a  sign  that  all  is  lost ;  in  the  former  it  is 
no  longer  regarded  with  suspicion  or  disfavor.  It  is  thought  that  the  oil 
rock  is  kept  in  better  condition  when  it  produces  with  the  oil  four  or  five 
barrels  of  salt  water  in  a  day.  Such  a  production  would  be  preferred  by 
many  operators  to  a  well  producing  oil  alone.  Even  where  wells  produce 
twenty,  thirty  or  fifty  barrels  of  salt  water  in  a  day,  they  may  still  be  highly 
valued  as  sources  of  oil.  The  salt  water  gains  in  many  cases  but  slowly. 
In  present  practice  in  the  Lima  field,  wells  are  universally  drilled  to  a  depth 
of  fifty  feet  in  the  Trenton  limestone,  and  this  depth  is  generally  sufficient 
to  release  more  or  less  salt  water.  The  difference  in  the  eastern  and  the 
western  fields  in  these  respects  is  obviously  connected  with  the  differences 
of  structure  by  which  they  are  characterized.  The  Pennsylvania  field  is 
marked  in  most  instances  by  the  presence  of  more  distinct  anticlinals  or 
arches  than  appear  in  Ohio.  In  the  latter  the  terrace  structure  prevails, 
and  broad  tracts  of  apparently  level  oil  rock  are  revealed  by  the  drill. 
On  the  margins  of  these  terraces,  the  water  column  is  often  aggressive,  but 
in  the  interior  it  works  its  way  forward  but  slowly.  It  is  this  factor  which 
protects  the  oil  rock  from  being  overflowed.  The  same  structure  protects 
the  gas  fields  of  Bloom  township,  Wood  county,  and  also  of  Franklin  town- 

14        G. 


2IO  GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO. 

ship,  Mercer  county,  for  example,  from  as  speedy  reduction  as  Findlaj 
and  Stuartsville  have  shown. 

Just  outside  the  oil  boundaries,  at  a  little  lower  level  in  the  lime- 
stone, a  flood  of  salt  water  unmixed  with  oil,  lies  which  rises  nearly  to 
the  surface  when  it  is  struck,  and  which  pumps  are  as  powerless  to  ex- 
haust as  they  would  be  if  connected  with  the  sea  itself.  But  the  driller 
always  knows  wells  of  this  character  as  soon  as  they  are  struck.  They  are 
in  no  sense  oil  wells  at  the  present  time  or  prospectively.  Abundant 
observations  show  that  the  salt  water,  when  it  rises  most  freely,  attains  a 
height  of  about  600  feet  above  tide. 

(c)  Acreage  demanded  by  Oil  Wells. — Opinions  vary  considerably  as  to 
the  proper  acreage  to  be  assigned  to  an  oil  well,  among  those  who  have  the 
most  experience  in  the  field.     It  is  probable  that  different  sections  of  the 
field  would  require  somewhat  different  answers  in  this  respect,  but  no 
judicious  operator  would  locate  wells  so  that,  any  one  would  have  less 
than  ten  acres  tributary  to  it.     Most  hold  that  in  territory  where  they  are 
not  obliged  to  guard  against  rival  interests,  economy  would  be  consulted 
by  giving  to  each  well  at  least  twenty  acres,  and  some  place  the  limit  as 
high  as  fifty  acres.     In  the  best  sections  of  the  field  a  well  will  undoubt- 
edly draw  oil  from  a  much  larger  area  even  than  the  last  named,  if  time 
enough  is  given  to  it.     There  are  a  few  cases  in  which  the  oil  rock  lies 
more  unsteady  than  usual,  where  a  part  of  the  production  might  be 
missed,  unless  wells  were  drilled  closer  together  than  any  of  the  limits 
assigned  would  require.     The  most  of  the  answers  would  name  ten  to 
twenty  acres  as  the  proper  territory  to  go  with  a  well. 

(d)  Production  of  Oil  to  the  Acre. — As  to  the  total  production  to  be 
realized  to  the  acre,  it  is  too  early  in  the  history  of  the  field  to  give  results. 
Only  estimates  are  available,  and  here  also  the  estimates  vary  considerably. 
No  estimate  obtained  has  placed  the  total  production  of  what  is  called 
good  territory  at  less  than  2,000  barrels  to  the  acre.     Many  judicious  esti- 
mates name  2,500  barrels  to  the  acre,  and  some  operators  are  confident 
that  the  best  territory  will  range  between  4,000  and  5,000  barrels  to  the 
acre.     There  is  no  doubt  that  the  last  named  figures  will  be  attained  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  greater  wells. 

(e)  Capacity  of  Single  Wells. — As  to  the  production  of  single  wells,  it 
is  still  too  early  to  report.     The  Slaughterbeck  well  No.  3,  of  Henry  town- 
ship, Wood  county,  had  produced^  total  of  200,000  barrels  one  year  ago, 
and  it  was  still  a  good  well.     The  Alonzo  McClain  well  of  Shawnee  town- 
ship had  reached  a  total  of  160,000  barrels  a  year  ago  and  was  still  a  good 
well.    Probably  a  score  of  wells  have  passed  the  100,000  barrel  mark  with- 
out losing  their  vitality.     One  operator  reports  an  average  production  of 


THE   TRENTON    LIMESTONE.  211 

30,000  barrels  to  thirty- five  wells,  all  of  which  were  still  in  fairly  vigorous 
production. 

Probably  no  single  well  has  produced  10,000  barrels  in  a  day,  but 
several  have  started  off  at  this  rate.  There  are  three  or  four  wells  that 
have  put  into  the  tanks  at  least  5,000  barrels  per  day. 

(/)  Life  of  the  Oil  Wells. — As  to  the  life  of  the  wells  of  the  Trenton 
limestone,  we  know  that  three  years  does  not  exhaust  them  when  proper 
•care  of  them  is  taken.  There  are  numerous  instances  of  wells  yielding 
twenty  to  fifty  barrels  to  the  pump  at  the  end  of  the  third  year,  and  a  few 
of  them  produce  nearly  as  much  even,  spontaneously,  when  they  have 
attained  this  same  term  of  years. 

(p)  Number  of  Oil  Wells  in  the  Trenton  Limestone  Fields. — In  August, 
1889,  there  were  about  1,200  wells  producing  oil  from  the  new  horizon. 
The  number  has  been  largely  increased  during  the  last  three  months. 
The  state  of  things  in  the  several  districts  is  shown  in  the  appended  re- 
port of  the  Buckeye  Pipe  Line  Company  for  June,  1890.  This  report 
betokens  great  activity  in  all  of  the  established  districts  : 

Wells 

Completed.  Drilling.     Eigs  up. 

Lima  District 29  36  50 

Findlay 29  31  29 

North  Baltimore 58  59  68 

St.  Mary's 21  15  26 

Gibsonburg 28  40  63 

Upper  Sandusky 3  3 

Spencerville 4 

Totals 165  188  239 

Wells  abandoned  in  June — Lima  district,  1 ;  North  Baltimore  district,  1 ;  Gibson- 
burg  district,  3 ;  total,  5.     Dry  holes  completed  in  June — Lima   district,  1 ;  Findlay 
district,  1 ;  North   Baltimore  district,  2  ;  St.  Mary's  district,  2 ;  Gibsonburg  district,  5 
total,  11. 

There  are  now  more  than  600  tanks  in  the  different  portions  of  the 
field.  The  tanks  average  at  least  30,000  barrels. 

DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  SEVERAL  FIELDS. 

A  brief  account  will  now  be  given  of  the  new  features  in  the  oil  pro- 
duction of  the  Trenton  limestone  during  the  last  two  years,  and  particu- 
larly of  the  new  fields  that  have  been  developed  since  the  date  of  the 
preceding  report.  For  the  facts  pertaining  to  the  early  history  of  the 
main  fields,  the  reader  is  referred  to  Volume  VI,  Geology  of  Ohio.  They 
will  not  be  treated  in  this  report,  except  as  they  may  be  incidentally 
mentioned. 

The  divisions  of  the  oil  field  will  be  considered  in  their  geographical 
relations,  rather  than  in  the  order  of  their  importance,  and  the  review 


212  GEOLOGY    OF   OHIO. 

s 

will  begin  with  the  westernmost  counties.  Oil  is  now  produced  from  the 
Trenton  limestone  in  Mercer,  Van  Wert,  Auglaize,  Allen,  Hancock, 
Wyandot,  Seneca,  Sandusky  and  Wood  counties. 

(A)      OIL   WELLS   OF    MERCER   COUNTY. 

The  Reservoir  Oil  Field. — Two  townships  of  this  county,  viz.,  Frank- 
lin and  Granville,  have  been  famous  centers  of  gas  production  for  the  last 
four  years,  but  the  discovery  of  oil  in  quantity  large  enough  to  be  taken 
account  of  belongs  mainly  to  the  last  year.  Oil  has  been  found  in  paying 
quantity  in  Jefferson  township,  directly  north  of  the  reservoir,  and  the 
productive  rock  also  extends  into  Center  township.  Exploration  is  going 
forward  in  all  the  northern  and  western  townships  of  the  county. 

The  chief  factor  in  the  extensive  work  which  is  being  done  in  Jeffer- 
son and  Center  townships  is  a  well  drilled  upon  the  farm  of  Mrs.  McMann 
during  1890.  It  started  with  400  barrels  per  day,  and  for  a  number  of 
weeks  kept  up  to  a  300-barrel  rate.  There  are  a  half  dozen  wells  finished 
in  Jefferson  township  that  indicate  a  fairly  remunerative  production,  so 
long  as  oil  does  not  fall  below  the  present  price.  This  territory  is  pretty 
thoroughly  covered  with  leases.  There  is  no  longer  room  for  the  im- 
pecunious operator.  Leases  can  not  be  obtained  without  a  bonus  of  at 
least  one  dollar  an  acre,  and  the  rate  is  generally  higher  near  the  centers 
where  production  has  been  proved.  South  of  the  reservoir  is  a  great  gas 
field ;  immediately  north  of  it,  as  is  now  seen,  an  oil  field  of  some  promise 
is  coming  into  view.  Speculators  are  now  looking  at  the  16,000  acres  of 
the  reservoir,  covered  with  a  depth  of  ten  or  twelve  feet  of  water,  with 
longing  eyes.  This  district  is  certain  to  contain  both  forms  of  petroliferous 
wealth.  If  the  State  were  prepared  to  lease  the  lands  handsome  returns 
could,  no  doubt,  be  secured.  The  control  of  the  lands  is  shared  by  two 
boards  at  the  present  time,  viz.,  by  the  Board  of  Public  Works  and  by  the 
Canal  Commission.  It  is  understood  that  there  is  no  present  disposition 
to  lease  the  lands  for  these  purposes.  If  they  are  held  back  for  a  year  or 
two  the  gas  that  underlies  the  reservoir  will  be  mainly  withdrawn  to  fill 
the  pipe  lines  of  the  companies  who  are  so  eagerly  competing  for  this 
buried  fuel  in  Franklin  township. 

The  oil  production  of  Mercer  county,  at  the  present  time,  as  will  be 
seen  by  this  review,  is  of  scanty  proportions,  but  its  promise  is  counted 
fair. 

(B)      OIL   WELLS   OF    AUGLAIZE    COUNTY. 

This  county  is  one  of  the  five  principal  oil-producing  counties  of  the 
State  at  the  present  time.  Its  development  was  well  under  way  at  the 
date  of  the  publication  of  the  last  geological  report,  and  since  that  time 


THE   TRENTON    LIMESTONE.  213 

it  has  been  steadily  progressing.  The  boundaries  of  production  remain 
about  as  they  were  indicated  on  the  map  of  1887,  though  an  occasional 
section  has  been  added  to  the  southern  boundary  in  one  or  two  townships. 
Oil  and  gas  are  limited  thus  far  to  the  eight  northwestern  townships.  The 
rock  fails  to  the  south  and  east  in  production  apparently  for  want  of 
porosity.  The  present  features  can  be  described  under  two  headings,  viz., 
the  St.  Mary's  field,  including  St.  Mary's  and  Washington  townships,  and 
the  Buckland  field,  including  Moulton  and  Noble  townships. 

(1)  The  St.  Mary's  Field.— The  oil  production  of  St.  Mary's  is  some- 
what irregular  in  its  distribution.     The  township  is  rather  to  be  counted 
gas  territory  than  oil  territory,  but  in  spots  throughout  its  northern  half, 
and  increasingly  toward  the  northern  border,  oil  is  found  instead  of  gas. 
The  latter  conditions  are  also  found  in  Noble  township  along  the  common 
boundary.     These  districts  mark  the  westernmost  limits  of  oil  in  im- 
portant quantity.     It  would  seem  as  if  the  Ohio  oil  field  of  Auglaize, 
Mercer  and  Allen  counties  is  the  corresponding  term  to  the  great  gas  field 
of  Indiana.     The  latter  in  reality  extends  into  Ohio  in  the  Mercer  county 
field.     The  bodily  connection  between  the  two  has  not  yet  been   dis- 
covered, but  there  is  little  reason  to  doubt  that  such  connection  exists  in 
the  shape  of  continuous  bsds  of  porous  rock. 

(2)  The  Buckland  Oil  Field. — Under  this  designation,  an   account 
will  be  given  of  one  of  the  leading  centers  of  production  from  the  new 
horizon.    The  field  will  be  made  to  include  Moulton  and  Noble  town- 
ships.    On  its  northern  and   eastern  boundary  it  is  directly  connected 
with  the  Lima  and  Cridersville  fields,  from  which,  in  any  case,  it  must  be 
separated,  if  at  all,  by  an  arbitrary  line.     All  the  boundaries  of  this  part 
of  the  oil  field,  in  fact,  are  recognized  as  arbitrary.     Careful  study  may 
reveal  natural  boundaries  in  salt  water  troughs  that  will  give  rise  to  a 
number  of  minor  subdivisions. 

The  surface  of  Moulton  township  is  very  flat,  ranging  mainly  between 
840  and  870  feet  above  tide.  The  bedded  rock  is  covered  by  a  series  of 
drift  deposits  that  generally  range  between  100  and  350  feet  in  thickness. 
The  deeply  buried  Trenton  limestone  that  underlies  this  monotonous 
surface  is  found  by  the  drill  to  exist  in  the  shape  of  a  terrace  that  has 
scarcely  more  relief  than  the  drift-covered  surface  above  described.  There 
is,  however,  no  correspondence  between  the  elevations  and  depressions  oi 
the  one  and  the  elevations  and  depressions  of  the  other.  The  upper 
surface  of  this  limestone,  as  revealed  by  the  work  of  the  driller,  has 
a,  range  of  only  thirty  or  forty  feet  throughout  the  township.  The 
highest  portions  of  it  are  about  310  feet  below  tide,  and  the  lowest 
troughs  are  less  than  350  feet  below  tide.  There  are  entire  square  miles 
in  which  the  surface  of  the  Trenton  limestone  will  not  vary  in  eleva- 


2I4 


GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO. 


tion  more  than  four  or  five  feet.  If  revealed  at  the*  surface  funder 
the  same  conditions  that  prevail  under  ground,  the  limestone^would  con- 
stitute a  swampy  plain,  from  which  the  water  would  find  it  difficult  to 
escape ;  or,  if  partially  overflowed  with  water,  two  or  three  long  troughs 
would  be  found  filled  to  a  depth  of  ten  to  twenty  feet,  after  the  fashion  of 
the  Mercer  Reservoir  to-day,  while  much  the  larger  portion  of  the  surface 
would  appear  as  broad  and  irregular  ridges.  These  ridges  constitute  the 
oil  field,  while  the  depressions  which  would  form  the  shallow  lakes  above 
represented  would  be  found  buried  in  salt  water.  One  of  these  salt  water 
troughs  has  been  found  by  the  drill  to  cross  the  township  in  the  vicinity 
of  Glynnwood.  Another  passes  just  south  of  Buckland,  and  still  a  third, 
on  the  eastern  border  of  the  town.  A  section  taken  by  the  Survey  across 
the  township  in  a  southeast  direction,  beginning  near  Buckland,  gives 
the  following  results: 


Trenton 
below  tide 

Results  of  drilling. 

Bowlby  well,  No.  1  

310  fe 
323 

et.... 

..    400  barrels  of  oil  with  large  ariiount  of  gas 

Johnston  well  

..    Oil  and  salt  water  the  latter  preponderating 

Dixon  well  

342 
320 
314 
323 

Salt  water  only. 
130  barrels  oil  per  day. 
200        "            '    " 

Doering  well  

Harshberger  well  

H.  T.  McConnell,  No.  1  

No.  2  
Crow  well  

336 
333 
310 
321 
333 

Salt  water  only. 
«             .< 

80  barrels  oil  per  day. 
Good  oil  well. 
Salt  water  only. 

Sheffer  well  

Sharp  well,  No.  2  

Bowsher  well,  No.  2  

These  figures  are  significant  and  will  repay  study.  They  show  how 
absolutely  the  relief  of  the  Trenton  limestone  dominates  its  production. 
The  salt  water  wells  found  along  the  line  of  the  section  show  the  following 
levels  of  surface  of  the  Trenton,  viz. :  342,  336,  333  and  333  feet  below  tide. 
Of  two  other  wells  that  report  salt  water  in  excess  in  connection  with  the 
oil,  both  find  the  Trenton  at  323  feet  below  tide.  In  the  oil  wells  proper, 
the  limestone  was  found  at  the  following  levels,  viz. :  310,  320,  314,  310  and 
321  feet  below  tide.  Three  productive  ridges  of  the  Trenton  were  crossed 
in  the  line  of  the  section,  indicated  respectively  by  the  Bowlby  well,  Tren- 
ton, 310;  the  Harshberger  well,  Trenton,  314,  and  the  Sheffer  well,  Tren- 
ton, 310.  These  elevated  tracts  can  not  be  called  anticlinals  in  any  strict 
use  of  this  term.  The  Trenton  limestone  in  these  oil  fields  lies  like  a 
carpet  on  a  floor  before  it  is  nailed  to  its  place;  there  are  many  and 
irregular,  albeit  small,  ridges  and  furrows  crossing  its  surface  in  varying 
directions. 


THE   TRENTON    LIMESTONE.  215 

Among  the  more  productive  districts  of  Moulton  township  may  be 
named  Sections  15  and,  16.  These  sections  can  be  safely  estimated  as  good 
for  at  least  2,500  barrels  to  the  acre.  In  other  words,  a  well  with  twenty 
acres  area  tributary  to  it  will  furnish  50,000  barrels  of  oil.  This  is  be- 
lieved to  be  a  moderate  estimate.  Sections  11,  12,  13  and  14  are  occupied 
in  part  by  the  salt  water  troughs  above  described.  The  southern  tier  of  sec- 
tions of  Logan  township  are  the  only  sections  from  which  important  pro- 
duction has  been  so  far  obtained.  In  the  salt  water  territory  the  water 
rises  to  1,000  or  1,100  feet  in  the  wells,  or  to  a  maximum  elevation  of 
about  600  feet  above  tide. 

(3)  The  Cridersville  Field. — Under  this  head  a  brief  account  will  be 
given  of  Duchouquet  township.  As  remarked  above,  it  is  directly  con- 
tinuous with  the  Lima  field,  and  is  separated  only  for  convenience  in 
description.  The  boundary  lines  remain  about  the  same  as  in  the  report 
of  1887-8,  except  that  on  the  southeastern  border  a  little  productive  terri- 
tory must  be  added.  The  northwestern  sections,  and  particularly  Sections 
32,  33,  34,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7  and  8,  have  yielded  as  good  wells,  all  things  con- 
sidered, as  are  to  be  found  in  the  western  oil  counties.  Section  7  has 
proved  very  prolific.  The  oil  sand  reaches  a  maximum  thickness  of 
twelve  feet,  an  average  thickness  of  eight  to  ten  feet.  It  is,  generally, 
covered  by  the  hard,  non-productive  cap,  previously  described,  five  to  ten 
feet  in  thickness.  Salt  water  is  expected  in  all  wells  at  a  depth  of  seven- 
teen to  thirty  feet,  and  is  welcomed  by  the  driller,  unless  the  quantity  is 
excessive.  Four  to  five  barrels  a  day  are  counted  as  a  decided  advantage 
in  oil  production.  The  water  column  does  not  prove  to  be  aggressive. 
Salt  water  may  lie  upon  the  oil  in  this  field  for  three  months  without 
seriously  affecting  the  production  of  a  well,  while  in  Pennsylvania  the 
value  of  a  well  would  be  probably  destroyed  by  the  salt  water  lying  upon 
it  a  single  week.  The  Shawnee  Oil  Company  holds  a  very  important  pro- 
duction in  this  township,  ranking  next,  at  the  present  time,  to  the  Ohio 
Oil  Company  (Standard  Oil  Company).  The  Shawnee  Oil  Company  owns 
not  only  its  oil  territory,  but  has  its  own  system  of  pipe  lines,  tanks  and 
tank  cars  as  well.  It  finds  abundant  market  for  all  that  it  can  produce 
as  far  east  as  the  Atlantic  seaboard.  Its  oil  is  sold  for  fuel  purposes 
exclusively. 

(C)      OIL   WELLS   OF   ALLEN    COUNTY. 

This  county  still  holds  a  very  prominent  place  in  the  oil  production 
of  the  Trenton  limestone.  For  the  first  two  years  of  the  new  production 
it  was  decidedly  in  the  lead,  but  with  all  the  rest  of  the  field  it  has  been 
overshadowed  by  the  wonderful  developments  in  Wood  county  during 
the  last  two  years.  There  is  practically  but  one  subdivision  of  the  field. 


216  GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO. 

Shawnee,  Perry,  Bath  and  Ottawa  townships  are  not  separated  in  their  oil 
production  by  salt  water  troughs,  and  they  can,  accordingly,  all  be  rated 
under  one  head. 

(1)  The  Lima  Oil  Field. — The  oil  production  of  the  townships  named 
above  constitutes  this  field.  The  first  two  townships  contain  most  of  the 
real  value.  Their  production  agrees,  in  all  respects,  with  that  of  Duchou- 
quet  and  Moulton  townships,  described  in  the  last  section,  except  that  as 
their  wells  have  been  drilled  longer,  the  territory  has  suffered  a  somewhat 
greater  reduction  in  vitality  than  that.  This  is  shown  by  the  fact  that 
new  wells  come  in  smaller  than  they  would  have  done  two  years  ago  in 
the  same  territory,  and  they  decrease  more  rapidly  after  being  drilled. 
This  is  simply  saying  that  the  Lima  oil  •field  behaves  like  all  other  oil 
fields. 

The  best  portions  of  this  county  for  oil  production  are  probably  Sec- 
tions 7,  8,  9,  16,  17,  18,  19,  20,  Perry,  and  the  southeastern  sections  of  Shaw- 
nee  township.  Much  of  this  territory  promises  to  far  exceed  2,500  barrels 
to  the  acre.  A  well  on  the  Alonzo  McClain  farm,  which  started  with  1,000 
barrels  per  day,  had  produced  160,000  barrels  of  oil  in  the  summer  of  1889 
and  was  still  a  good  well.  A  well  on  the  Ridenour  farm,  which  started 
with  1,300  barrels  per  day,  had  passed  the  100,000-barrel  limit  a  year  and 
a  half  ago,  and  was  still  flowing  from  twenty  to  thirty  barrels  per  day.  It 
is  believed  that  a  considerable  number  of  wells  can  be  found  that  have 
reached  a  total  of  100,000  barrels.  Wherever  such  wells  are  found,  the  total 
production  to  the  acre  must  rise  to  4,000,  or  even  5,000  barrels.  This  is  a 
splendid  showing  for  any  oil  territory.  Thirty-five  wells,  the  production 
of  which  had  been  followed  by  the  operator  who  drilled  them  and  owned 
them,  had  reached  an  average  of  30,000  barrels  each  before  they  were  sold 
by  him.  Their  total  production  was  probably  not  more  than  half  delivered 
at  the  time  of  the  sale. 

Some  of  the  most  experienced  operators  declare  that  in  territory  like 
this,  provided  they  could  fully  control  it,  they  would  set  wells  1,500  feet 
apart.  They  believe  that  they  would  obtain  all  the  oil  by  this  system  and 
with  the  least  possible  outlay.  This  would  give  more  than  fifty  acres  to  a 
well.  No  judicious  operator  advocates  setting  wells  nearer  than  750  feet, 
and  this  would  give  to  each  well  about  thirteen  acres. 

Lima  has  been  made  the  center  of  the  interests  of  the  Standard  Oil 
Company  for  this  part  of  the  new  field.     It  has  profited  very  greatly  by 
the  outlays  made  here.     The  Solar  Refinery,  which  has  already  been  briefly 
described,  has  grown  to  very  large  proportions.     The  pumping  station  o  f 
the  Chicago  pipe  line  is  also  located  here.     These  two  interests  require 
great  concentration  of  tankage.     The  30,000-barrel  tanks  of  the  company 
cover  farm  after  farm  as  closely  as  they  can  be  safely  set.     The  rising  price 


THE    TRENTON     LIMESTONE.  217 

of  oil,  together  with  the  growing  disregard  of  the  presence  of  salt  water  has 
led  to  a  renewal  of  drilling  to  the  east  and  southeast  of  Lima ;  and  some 
wells,  condemned  three  years  ago  because  while  producing  some  oil  they 
also  produced  salt  water,  are  thought  to  warrant  further  outlay  at  the  pres- 
ent time.  The  tests  that  are  now  being  carried  on  will  determine  whether 
any  considerable  additions  are  to  be  made  to  the  field  along  those  lines. 
Present  appearances  do  not  seem  to  favor  such  additions. 

(2)  The  Spencerville  Oil  Field. — A  considerable  amount  of  drilling 
has  been  going  forward  during  the  last  two  years  in  Spencer  and  adjoining 
townships  of  Allen  county,  and  in  Jennings  township,  Van  Wert  county, 
which  joins  the  former  on  the  west.  This  territory  must  be  called  an  oil 
field  by  courtesy  only,  at  the  present  time,  as  it  has  not  yet  been  proved 
to  deserve  the  name. 

The  principal  part  of  this  work  has  been  done  in  this  area  by  the  Gey- 
ser Oil  Company,  which  takes  its  name  from  the  owner  of  a  farm  in  section 
12,  Spencer  township,  on  which  one  of  its  first  wells  was  drilled.  The 
company  has  taken  up  about  35,000  acres  of  land,  a  large  part  of  it  in  the 
western  portions  of  Allen  and  Van  Wert  counties.  During  the  latter  part 
of  its  leasing,  it  was  obliged  to  meet  sharp  competition  from  the  Ohio  Oil 
Company.  It  has  drilled  thirty-four  wells,  seven  of  which  are  unproduc- 
tive. A  few  of  these  wells  produce  dry  gas,  and  this  product  has  been  util- 
ized in  the  supply  of  Spencerville  and  of  Delphos.  The  drilling  in  this 
region  was  begun  by  a  company  representing  the  interests  of  the  last  named 
town,  the  object  of  their  search  being  gas  for  the  general  use.  This  com- 
pany drilled  eight  wells  in  Section  12,  Spencer,  and  Section  8,  Marion 
townships,  and  found  enough  gas  to  warrant  them,  as  they  supposed,"  in 
the  building  of  a  pipe  line  three  or  four  miles  in  length  to  Delphos.  But 
the  supply,  when  tested,  proved  entirely  inadequate  for  even  400  stoves. 

The  Geyser  Company  took  up  the  work  where  this  company  left  it,  by 
drilling  another  well  in  Section  12,  Spencer  township.  The  result  was  not 
very  different  from  that  already  attained  by  the  Delphos  Company,  a  small 
quantity  of  gas  being  found  in  the  rock ;  but  in  addition  a  small  flow  of 
oil  was  also  secured.  The  company  located  its  next  well  two  and  a  half 
miles  southwest,  on  the  Nicholas  Kill  farm,  Section  22,  Spencer.  The 
Trenton  limestone  was  found  here  at  a  depth  of  1,167  feet.  It  was  drilled 
ato  for  fifty-one  feet,  and  the  well  is  reported  as  giving  promise  of  being 
an  excellent  one.  Storage  for  the  oil  has  been  but  recently  provided,  and 
therefore  no  full  tests  of  the  wells  have  been  possible.  A  38,000-barrel  tank 
is  now  completed  and  nothing  apparently  stands  in  the  way  of  determin- 
ing what  the  field  as  thus  far  drilled  is  worth. 

In  Section  28,  Jennings,  a  light  gas  well  was  found;  in  the  same  Sec- 
tion, nearly  a  mile  distant,  a  well  estimated  at  two  million  feet  of  dry  gas 


2l8  GEOLOGY   OF    OHIO. 

was  obtained.  This  well  was  drilled  but  twenty-five  feet  into  the  Tren- 
ton. Oil  would  undoubtedly  have  been  reached  by  sinking  the  well  a, 
little  deeper.  The  gas  was  conveyed  to  Spencerville  by  a  two- inch  line 
from  this  well,  and  from  Spencerville  by  a  three  inch  line  to  Section  12, 
to  which  point  the  six-inch  line  of  Delphos  had  already  been  laid  with 
which  it  was  there  connected.  Gas  enough  was  now  secured  for  both 
villages,  at  least  temporarily.  The  original  rock  pressure  of  the  gas  is  re- 
ported at  440  pounds. 

In  Section  16,  Jennings  township,  the  Nicholas  Miller  well  is  located. 
The  oil  rock  was  found  in  it  at  1,163  feet.  This  well  gives  the  best 
promise  of  any  drilled  in  the  township  thus  far.  In  Section  10,  one  and 
a  half  miles  northeast  of  this  last  well,  the  Trenton  limestone  has  fallen 
sixty  feet.  This  descent  would  stand  ft*  a  salt  water  trough  had  not  the 
rock  been  dry.  Other  wells  have  been  drilled  in  the  two  townships  as 
follows :  In  Sections  8,  16,  19,  21,  28,  of  Jennings  township,  and  in  Sec- 
tions 11, 12,  14,  18,  23,  26  and  27  of  Spencer.  The  Geyser  Oil  Company 
is  composed  of  as  sagacious  and  successful  operators  as  there  are  in  the 
field.  It  is  said  to  have  already  expended  $150,000  in  its  work  so  far. 
We  should  expect  that  its  confidence,  as  evinced  by  this  large  expendi- 
ture, would  have  a  solid  foundation.  The  grounds  of  this  confidence  are 
not,  perhaps,  fully  apparent  as  yet,  but  from  what  is  reported  from  the 
wells  already  drilled  it  is  probable  that  the  field  at  best  will  be  a  spotted 
and  irregular  one,  dry  holes,  gas  wells  and  oil  wells  alternating  through 
the  whole  territory. 

(D)      OIL    WELLS   OF    HANCOCK    COUNTY. 

(1)  The  Findlay  Field. — The  Findlay  oil  pool  maintains  nearly  the 
same  boundaries  that  it  showed  two  years  ago,  being  almost  entirely  con- 
fined to  Findlay  and  Liberty  townships,  except  in  one  particular,  which 
-will  be  hereafter  named.  To  the  westward  and  southward  no  extension 
has  been  reported,  the  salt  water  holding  undivided  possession  of  the 
porous  Trenton  limestone  in  that  direction.  The  dead  line  of  the  field  is 
still  the  line  of  500  feet  below  tide.  In  the  rarest  instances  has  any  oil 
been  derived  from  a  lower  level.  The  lines  have  opened,  however,  on  the 
northward,  so  as  to  embrace  all  the  sections  of  Liberty  township.  They 
have  not  been  found  thus  far  to  include  any  territory  of  value  in  Portage 
township.  The  field  has  lost  in  great  part,  its  relative  importance,  by 
reason  of  the  development  in  Wood  county  to  the  northward. 

During  the  last  three  years  the  field  has  receded  in  vitality  neces- 
sarily, because  it  has  been  undergoing  steady  development  during  all  this 
period.  Some  of  its  best  lands  have  already  yielded  3,000  barrels  to  the 
acre,  with  the  promise  of  a  large  addition  before  they  are  finally  aban- 


THE   TRENTON    LIMESTONE.  2  19 

doned.  The  Ohio  Oil  Company  has  secured  control  of  by  farfthe  largest 
portion  of  the  production,  and  has  covered  several  farms^with  its  exten- 
sive system  of  tanks.  The  Peerless  Oil  Company,  perhaps,  comes'next  in 
production  at  the  present  time.  It  holds  about  4,000  acres  under  lease,  in 
what  is  counted  the  best  territory  of  the  township. 

The  geology  of  the  Findlay  oil  field  was  treated  at  considerable 
length  in  Volume  VI,  and  nothing  remains  to  be  added  from  more' recent 
work. 

As  will  be  remembered,  the  level  of  the  oil  rock  was  originally  be- 
tween 400  and  500  feet  below  tide  throughout  the  Findlay  field.  The 
extension  of  oil  production,  in  what  was  originally  dry  gas  'territory, 
which  is  now  in  progress  in  the  township,  is  a  matter  of  unusuaFscientific 
interest.  It  completes  the  demonstration  of  the  id  entity  "of  the  gas  rock, 
the  oil  rock  and  the  salt  water  rock  of  the  Trenton  limestone,  and  of  their 
complete  continuity.  It  compels  even  the  most  undiscriminating  ob- 
server to  recognize  the  fact  that  the  gas  is  driven  forward  injts  reservoir 
toy  a  sheet  of  oil,  accompanied  with  salt  water,  that  slowly*  rises  to  take 
the  place  of  the  gas  as  the  latter  is  withdrawn.  The  facts  arejnost  signifi- 
cantly shown  in  the  heart  of  the  Findlay  township  gas-field.  Wells  are 
now  being  drilled  expressly  for  oil  in  what  was  unquestioned  gas  terri- 
tory, and  the  apprehension  exists  that  the  comfort  of  the  town  will  be 
materially  interfered  with  if  drilling  is  allowed  to  go  forward  in  this 
interest  in  the  districts  that  are  more  or  less  occupied  as  residence 
quarters.  As  to  the  total  production  of  the  replaced  rock  there  are  no 
data  for  determining  the  facts  at  present,  but  it  would  scarcely  be  ex- 
pected to  equal  the  production  of  those  portions  of  the  limestone  which 
received  their  stocks  during  the  vast  periods  in  which  the  contents  of  the 
porous  stratum  were  slowly  differentiated  under  the  influence  of  gravity. 
In  other  words,  a  great  oil  field  is  not  to  be  looked  for  in  an  exhausted 
gas  field.  The  largest  production  that  has  been  noted  in  such  a  case  is 
that  of  the  Adams  well,  which  was  drilled  in  the  early  history  of  the 
field,  and  which  yielded  dry  gas  for  six  or  eight  months.  After  the  oil 
had  taken  the  main  possession  of  the  rock  it  produced  from  fifteen  to 
twenty-five  barrels  per  day  for  three  or  four  months. 

(2)  The  Stuartsville  Oil  Field. — Allen  township  has,  during  the  present 
year,  aroused  as  great  an  excitement  in  regard  to  oil  as  its  great  gas  wells 
had  previously  done.  A  well  that  was  drilled  in  the  spring  of  1890,  by 
McConica  &  Co.,  in  the  northwest  corner  of  Section  36,  led  the  way.  It 
was  drilled  with  the  confident  expectation  that  it  would  produce  dry  gas 
as  the  nearest  localities  tested  had  all  done.  But  it  found  the  Trenton 
about  450  feet  below  tide,  which  showed  it  to  be  within  original  oil  terri- 
tory. This  well  produced  within  the  first  two  days  1,965  barrels  of  oil. 


22O  GEOLOGY    OF   OHIO. 

The  unrestrained  flow  was,  however,  too  much  for  it  and  it  began  forth- 
with to  produce  salt  water  with  the  oil.  It  was  then  locked  back  to  a 
production  of  about  600  barrels  a  day,  which  it  maintained  for  some  time. 
Great  excitement  followed  this  unexpected  record,  and  there  were  at  least 
twenty  derricks  erected  in  Sections  25  and  36  by  May  1.  As  many  oper- 
ators as  could  find  standing-room  had  hurried  to  the  scene.  None  of  the 
wells  subsequently  drilled  have  quite  equaled  in  production  the  first, 
though  the  list  embraces  many  excellent  wells  for  any  field.  The  surface 
elevation  of  this  district  is  about  810  to  825  feet  above  tide.  The  Trenton 
limestone  is  commonly  struck  in  it  between  1,212  and  1,260  feet.  This 
shows  that  the  upper  surface  of  the  limestone  ranges  from  400  to  450  feet 
below  tide.  A  part  of  it  is  thus  seen  to  have  been  originally  gas  territory 
which  has  been  overrun  with  oil  by  the  rise  of  the  latter  into  the  portion 
of  the  stratum  which  the  great  gas  wells  have  drained.  A  small  part  of 
the  territory  was  originally  oil  rock. 

(3)  Marion  and  Cass  Townships. — An  oil  field  can  not  be  predicated  of 
these  townships  as  yet,  but  some  of  the  gas  wells,  including  the  famous 
Thorntree  well,  show  oil  in  such  an  amount  that  if  they  were  allowed  to 
flow  without  restraint  it  is  fair  to  infer  that  they  would  speedily  be  con- 
verted into  oil  wells  of  moderate  capacity.  Whether  oil  or  salt  water  lies 
nearest  to  the  clusters  of  Xells  that  have  been  drilled  by  the  several  com- 
panies represented  here,  has  not  been  made  apparent  in  all  cases  as  yet. 
There  seems  no  reason,  however,  to  expect  any  important  oil  field  in  these 
two  townships. 

(E)      OIL   PRODUCTION   OP    WYANDOT    COUNTY. 

The  determined  search  for  a  home  supply  of  natural  gas,  which  was 
made  first  by  Carey  and  afterward  by  Upper  Sandusky,  though  failing  in 
its  direct  object,  has  led  to  the  discovery  of  oil  in  several  townships  of  the 
county  in  quantity  large  enough  to  command  the  interest  of  the  oil  pro- 
ducer, especially  since  the  advance  in  price  previously  recorded.  Many 
of  the  Carey  wells  found  a  little  oil  associated  with  the  gas  that  they 
were  searching  for,  but  it  was  finally  demonstrated  in  a  very  expensive 
way  that  there  was  not  enough  of  either  at  this  location  to  justify  its 
exploitation.  It  was  thought  in  the  early  stages  of  the  work  that  the 
Trenton  limestone  descended  below  the  salt  water  level  of  the  field  im- 
mediately beyond  its  occurrence  at  Carey,  but  it  has  since  been  learned 
that  a  broad  terrace  of  the  limestone  extends  to  the  southward  and  south- 
eastward of  Carey,  occupying  in  part  the  following  named  towns  :  Craw- 
ford, Salem  and  Crane.  The  lower  limestone  is  not  characterized,  as  is 
shown  by  the  drill,  by  an  even  surface,  but  many  minor  folds  and  troughs 
traverse  it  without  any  order  that  has  yet  been  learned. 


THE   TRENTON    LIMESTONE.  ±21 

No  further  advance  was  made  in  the  vicinity  of  Carey  after  its  early 
experience  until  the  present  year,  and  even  then  the  new  drilling  which 
has  opened  up  a  possible  oil  field,  advanced  from  the  southward.  The  ex- 
perience of  Upper  Sandusky  in  the  search  for  a  natural  gas  supply  in  its 
own  neighborhood  has  already  been  narrated.  The  elation  over  its  one 
extraordinary  gas  well  was  great,  but  short-lived.  When,  two  weeks  after 
it  was  struck,  it  began  throwing  salt  water  in  quantity,  together  with  a 
little  oil,  signifying  that  the  reservoir  of  dry  gas  had  already  been  emptied, 
all  the  earlier  gas  wells  of  the  neighborhood  began  to  throw  oil  also.  The 
gas  field  was,  in  fact,  turning  into  an  oil  field,  but  no  important  produc- 
tion was  yet  realized  in  any  of  its  wells.  Among  the  new  wells,  however, 
that  the  trustees  forthwith  drilled  in  adjoining  territory,  one  or  two  that 
were  finished  early  in  1889  gave  somewhat  more  promise  in  this  direction. 
The  Swable  well,  located  in  the  northeast  quarter  of  Section  12,  Salem 
township,  was  in  no  sense  a  gas  well  at  any  stage,  but  when  allowed  to 
flow,  it  was  thought  to  be  good  for  twenty  to  thirty  barrels  of  oil  per  day. 
The  surface  of  the  Trenton  limestone  was  reached  in  this  well  at  1,322 
feet,  or  about  fifty  feet  below  the  highest  gas  level  of  the  immediate 
neighborhood.  The  Gibson  well  No.  2,  located  in  Section  7,  same  town- 
ship, and  the  Russman  well,  in  Section  14,  northwest  quarter,  were  also 
counted  oil  wells.  The  former  showed  a  descent  of  the  surface  of  the 
Trenton  limestone  of  at  least  seventy  feet  within  2,000  feet  of  horizontal 
measurement. 

These  discoveries  occurred  just  as  the  price  of  Lima  oil  was  beginning 
to  be  advanced  and  while  the  possibilities  in  regard  to  the  enhancement 
of  price  seemed  very  great.  The  promise  of  a  new  field  came  to  the  oil 
producers  opportunely  at  this  juncture,  and  they  competed  with  great 
spirit  for  the  possession  of  Crane  and  Salem  townships,  to  which  the  pro- 
duction thus  far  was  mainly  confined.  One  of  the  great  prizes  was 
thought  to  be  the  acreage  of  the  Upper  Sandusky  municipal  corporation, 
leased  primarily  for  gas,  but  with  a  clause  covering  oil  production  also. 
One  company  is  said  to  have  offered  $50,000  for  the  oil  rights  of  the 
corporation,  but  this  offer  was  presently  withdrawn.  Other  companies 
offered  heavy  royalty.  The  Ohio  Oil  Company  took  a  leading  part  in  the 
acquisition  of  territory.  Numerous  other  companies,  and  also  individual 
producers,  spent  money  very  freely  in  getting  control  of  the  land.  Many 
tens  of  thousands  of  dollars  were  distributed  among  the  landowners  of 
these  townships  during  the  spring  of  1890.  A  dozen  wells  were  started 
at  once,  though  not  altogether  confined  to  Salem  and  Crane  townships, 
and  at  the  present  time  the  results  of  these  tests  are  beginning  to  be  avail- 
able. They  are  not  encouraging  in  the  townships  named.  There  has 


222  GEOLOGY   OF    OHIO. 

nothing  been  brought  to  light  better  than  the  Swable  well  already  noticed, 
and  that  was  of  doubtful  value. 

Among  the  wells  begun  about  this  time,  however,  was  one  located 
near  Crawford  Station,  northeast  quarter  Section  23,  in  Crane  township, 
on  one  of  the  Carey  farms,  by  the  Ohio  Oil  Company,  that  has  brought 
in  a  much  more  encouraging  record.  The  well  yields  a  considerable 
amount  of  gas  with  its  oil,  but  the  quantity  of  the  latter  is  estimated  at 
75  to  100  barrels  per  day.  This  result  has  renewed  and  extended  the 
interest  in  this  township,  but  it  will  require  a  number  of  wells  to  confirm 
the  claim  that  it  marks  the  beginning  of  a  new  oil  field  of  any  importance. 
The  tests  are  already  going  forward,  and  during  the  present  summer  the 
character  of  the  oil  promise  of  Wyandot  county  will  be  definitely  de- 
termined. The  promise  does  not  seem  at  the  present  time  to  be  very 

brilliant. 

• 

(F)   OIL  PRODUCTION  OF  SENECA  COUNTY. 

In  the  first  wells  drilled  in  this  county,  as  in  fact  in  all  the  early 
drilling  of  northern  Ohio,  the  object  of  the  search  was  gas,  not  oil.  To 
miss  the  former  was  failure,  and  small  compensation  was  found  in  a  light 
production  of  oil  that  was  occasionally  met.  It  resulted,  therefore,  that 
little  account  was  taken  of  the  numerous  cases  of  this  sort  that  presented 
themselves  throughout  the  counties  in  which  the  bulk  of  the  drilling 
was  being  done.  No  proper  tests  were  made  of  such  wells.  During  the 
last  three  years,  however,  there  has  been  a  slowly  rising  appreciation  of  oil 
in  the  field,  as  compared  with  gas,  and  during  the  last  year  it  has  taken 
decidedly  the  first  place  in  economic  importance,  and  no  such  neglect  of 
oil  indications  would  occur  in  any  field  under  the  present  conditions. 
We  shall  soon  learn  whether  the  small  oil  wells  named  above  can  be  made 
to  expand  into  a  regular  and  valuable  production. 

The  statements  above  made  explain  Avhy  four  years  after  oil  was  first 
discovered  in  Tiffin  we  are  still  unable  to  say  whether  or  not  there  is  any 
value  in  the  production.  The  Loomis  and  Nyman  well  continued  to  pro- 
duce four  to  five  barrels  of  oil  per  day  as  long  as  it  was  allowed  to  remain 
open.  So,  also,  in  well  No.  2  of  the  corporation  series,  oil  rose  within  150 
feet  of  the  surface  at  the  time  of  drilling.  The  well  has  been  shut  in 
during  the  interval,  but  it  is  opened  three  or  four  times  a  year  and  a  pro- 
duction of  150  to  175  barrels  of  oil  has  been  secured  from  it  for  each  of 
the  last  three  years. 

The  drilling  done  near  Tiffin  shows  marked  flexures  and  irregularities 
of  the  lower  rocks,  but  thus  far  all  the  portions  of  the  Trenton  that  have 
possessed  the  proper  relief  for  oil  or  gas  accumulation  have  appeared  to 


THE    TRENTON     LIMESTONE.  223 

exist  in  small  and  insulated  areas.     Every  gas  well,  for  example,  has  been 
overrun  by  oil  or  water  within  six  weeks  of  the  date  of  its  completion. 

Companies  are  still  being  formed  in  Tiffin,  and  the  leasing  of  terri- 
tory is  even  yet  going  forward.  Under  the  present  interest  it  will  certainly 
happen  that  the  value  of  the  new  wells  will  be  at  once  tested  and  de- 
termined. There  is  no  production  in  sight  of  real  value  in  Seneca  county. 

(G)      OIL   PKODUCTION   OF   SANDUSKY    COUNTY. 

Under  this  head  we  reach  a  really  important  section  of  the  history 
of  Trenton  limestone  oil.  Sandusky  county  ranks  next  to  the  four 
counties  already  named  as  the  main  centers  of  oil  production,  viz.,  Au- 
glaize,  Allen,  Hancock  and  Wood.  Its  history  is  an  interesting  one  from 
eyery  point  of  view.  The  first  fact  to  be  noted  is  that  two  low  anticlinal 
ridges  are  shown  by  the  geological  map  to  traverse  the  county  in  a  north 
and  south  direction.  The  structure  may,  perhaps,  be  better  described  by 
saying  that  a  relatively  broad  syncline  extends  from  the  south  line  of 
Jackson  and  Ballville  townships  in  a  northerly  direction,  bearing  a  trifle 
to  the  westward,  to  the  lake  shore,  a  distance  of  about  twenty-five  miles, 
and  taking  in  all  or  part  of  twelve  townships  in  Sandusky  and  Ottawa 
counties.  The  average  breadth  of  the  syncline  is  about  six  miles.  The 
surface  of  the  county  being  exceedingly  uniform,  the  age  of  the  lime- 
stone that  makes  the  surface  determines  the  elevation  or  depression  of  the 
series.  When,  for  example,  the  Niagara  limestone  constitutes  the  surface, 
the  presence  of  a  low  arch  or  anticline  is  assured ;  and  by  the  same  token 
an  area  of  Lower  Helderberg  limestone  stands  for  a  depression  or  trough 
in  the  series. 

On  either  side  of  this  syncline  oil  and  gas  production  haVe  been  ob- 
tained ;  on  the  west  side  at  Gibsonburg,  Helena  and  Lindsey,  and  on  the 
eastern  uplift  at  Oak  Harbor.  The  latter  has  already  been  described  under 
another  head.  Its  production  is  not  important  in  any  sense  and  never 
has  been.  The  western  area,  however,  holds  a  very  different  place.  Madi- 
son township  is  becoming  a  large  and  increasingly  important  source  of 
oil,  and  with  it  a  few  sections  of  Washington  must  be  counted.  Jackson 
township  and  Woodville  township  also  make  contributions  of  some  pro- 
spective value.  A  single  oil  well  has  been  drilled  in  Scott  township  also. 

The  Gibsonburg  and  Helena  Oil  Field. 

The  discovery  of  oil  and  gas  in  this  district  goes  back  to  1887.  The 
main  object  of  the  early  search  was  here,  as  elsewhere,  natural  gas.  At 
Gibsonburg  the  long-established  lime-burning  interest  led  the  way.  Gas- 
burned  lime  was  beginning  to  come  into  threatening  competition  with 
wood-burned  lime.  A  supply  of  gas  was  found  here,  as  shown  on  a  pre- 


224  GEOLOGY    OF   OHIO. 

ceding  page,  but  its  value  was  thought  to  be  greatly  reduced  by  a  small 
quantity  of  oil  that  was  produced  with  the  gas.  Up  to  this  time,  while 
oil  in  small  quantity  was  found  at  many  points  in  this  .vicinity,  the  pro- 
duction had  been  insignificant,  and  this  fact,  taken  in  connection  with 
the  insignificant  price  for  oil  that  then  prevailed,  made  its  occurrence  in 
the  gas  wells  a  serious  drawback.  At  Gibsonburg,  however,  the  oil  that 
appeared  with  the  gas  was  utilized  from  the  first.  It  was  also  noted  that 
the  oil  was  of  the  Wood  county  type  rather  than  of  the  Findlay  and 
Lima  type.  Its  gravity  was  not  below  41°  B.,  and  it  was  counted  less 
impregnated  with  sulphur  than  the  Lima  oil.  These  points  especially 
recommended  it  to  the  refining  interests  that  were  now  in  the  field,  and 
during  1888  and  1889  a  good  deal  of  leasing  of  prospective  oil  territory 
was  going  on  in  the  vicinity  of  Gibsonburg.  By  the  early  summer  of 
1889  fifteen  wells  had  been  drilled  in  Madison  and  Washington  town- 
ships, and  one  of  these  wells,  viz.,  the  Shoemaker,  No.  2,  was  credited  with 
a  production  of  400  barrels  per  day  for  its  initial  flow.  In  a  month  after 
its  completion,  however,  the  salt  water  overtook  the  oil.  Others  that 
were  finished  about  the  same  time  were  found  good  for  varying  quantities 
of  oil,  reported  as  ranging  from  fifteen  to  seventy  barrels  per  day.  These 
results  awakened  great  activity  among  the  rival  oil  companies,  and  high 
prices  were  paid  during  the  last  year,  and  during  the  first  half  of  1889. 
The  Ohio  Oil  Company  took  a  leading  part  in  this  development,  paying 
as  high  as  $25  an  acre  bonus  for  some  territory  counted  unusually  promis- 
ing, and  $8  and  $10  per  acre  for  considerable  territory  besides,  while 
royalties  ranged  all  the  way  from  a  fifth  to  an  eighth.  Other  companies 
were,  of  course,  obliged  to  meet  these  figures.  The  Paragon  Refining 
Company  has  had  an  interest  in  the  field  from  the  beginning,  and  has 
acquired  a  large  acreage  and  production.  The  Sun  Oil  Company  also 
holds  a  large  territory  here,  and  has  drilled  a  considerable  number  of 
wells.  Naturally,  with  the  advance  in  the  price  of  oil,  the  excitement 
has  been  intensified,  and  at  the  present  time  nearly  all  of  the  ten  town- 
ships named,  and  a  great  deal  of  territory  besides,  has  been  covered  by  the 
several  oil  companies  and  by  individual  operators  who  are  established  in 
the  field. 

The  general  conditions  of  oil  production  in  these  townships  are  about 
as  follows :  The  surface  of  the  country  ranges  in  elevation  between  625 
and  675  feet  above  tide.  The  Trenton  is  found  in  productive  wells  at  a 
depth  of  1,200  to  1,250  feet,  or  from  575  to  625  feet  below  tide.  The  depth 
of  the  casing  does  not  exceed  400  feet  in  any  oil  well.  Where  more  than 
400  feet  of  casing  is  required  the  Trenton,  if  porous,  is  found  full  of  salt 
water.  Salt  water  rose  in  the  field,  in  very  many  examples,  to  a  maxi- 
mum of  600  or  625  feet  above  tide.  The  separation  of  gas  and  oil  territory 


THE    TRENTON     LIMESTONE.  225 

is  of  course  marked  by  differences  of  elevation  in  the  Trenton  limestone, 
just  as  in  the  fields  previously  described.  Every  foot  of  elevation  is 
brought  into  the  account  in  this  separation.  The  oil  wells  have  a  good 
degree  of  vitality,  some  of  them  flowing  for  more  than  a  year  without 
interruption.  When  salt  water  is  struck  in  connection  with  the  oil, 
pumping  is  necessary  from  the  start.  The  boundary  of  productive  terri- 
tory is  in  many  cases  quite  sharp  and  well  denned,  but  such  boundaries 
can  be  found  only  by  the  drill.  There  are  no  well-marked  structural 
lines  traversing  the  field  so  far  as  present  developments  indicate,  unless 
such  a  line  shall  be  found  in  a  salt  water  trough  that  traverses  the  follow- 
ing named  sections  of  Madison  township,  viz.,  28, 21  and  17.  This  trough 
bears,  as  far  as  it  can  be  followed,  a  little  to  the  west  of  north.  The  Tren- 
ton limestone  is  found  here  at  about  1,280  feet  in  depth,  and  the  casing  of 
the  wells  is  425  feet  or  more.  Two  or  three  dry  gas  wells  can  be  connected 
by  a  line  parallel  to  the  salt  water  trough  referred  to  above.  This  is  the 
only  feature  that  can  be  claimed  as  recognizable  in  the  way  of  structure 
in  Madison  township,  and  this  is  far  from  being  positively  established. 

The  best  production  of  the  township  has  been  realized  thus  far  in 
Sections  10, 11,  12,  22,  23,  24,  25,  26,  35  and  36;  or,  in  other  words,  on  the 
eastern  half  of  the  township.  A  dozen  wells  belonging  to  a  single  com- 
pany, half  of  which  have  been  drilled  in  the  last  year,  have  averaged 
during  the  present  summer  fifteen  barrels.  Many  wells  begin  with  forty 
to  fifty  barrels,  but  in  a  week  they  fall  away  to  about  half  that  production, 
and  this  latter  rate  they  maintain  thereafter  for  some  time.  The  produc- 
tion to  the  acre  can  not  be  safely  estimated  as  yet.  It  does  not  promise 
to  be  large. 

The  Ohio  Oil  Company,  on  the  1st  of  May,  1890,  had  drilled  thirty 
wells  in  the  Gibsonbusg  district.  At  the  same  date  there  were  about 
twenty  wells  belonging  to  other  parties  in  the  same  field ;  of  this  number, 
eleven  belong  to  the  Paragon  interests.  The  numbers  have  been  greatly 
increased  and  probably  doubled  during  the  present  season.  The  Helena 
field,  so-called,  is  strictly  continuous  with  the  Gibsonburg  field.  Much  of 
the  work  at  the  former  point  is  concentrated  in  Section  31,  Washington, 
but  adjacent  sections  in  Jackson  are  also  occupied  by  the  driller.  The 
village  lot  has  come  into  requisition  here  and  the  derricks  of  rival  com- 
pa^iies  confront  each  other  at  intervals  of  50  or  100  feet.  Such  a  colloca- 
tion illustrates,  not  the  strength  of  the  oil  rock  but  the  weakness  of  human 
nature.  In  only  rare  instances  will  any  of  these  crowded  wells  repay  the 
driller  in  the  oil  that  they  produce.  He  must  count  himself  paid  by  the 
rendering  of  his  neighbor's  investment  worthless,  seeing  that  he  has  lost 
his  own. 

15        G. 


226  GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO. 

Drilling  in  this  general  neighborhood  has  been  done  in  Woodville 
township  on  Sections  1,  4,  5,  11,  12  and  28.  A  well  in  Section  4  has  pro- 
duced fifty  barrels  a  day  without  the  use  of  the  torpedo.  In  Scott  town- 
ship, east  half  of  Section  4,  a  twenty-five-barrel  well  has  been  drilled,  while 
barren  rock  was  found  in  Section  1.  Section  sixteen  has  also  been  tested 
<by  a  single  well. 

So  far  as  known  no  other  prominent  indications  of  gas  or  oil  have 
Taeen  reported  from  Sandusky,  but  it  is  evident  that  at  least  three  or  four 
of  the  townships  last  named  are  now  making,  and  likely  to  continue  to 
make  valuable  contributions  to  our  oil  supply. 


CHAPTER 


THE   CLINTON  LIMESTONE    AS  A  SOURCE  OF   OIL  AND  GAS. 

This  is  the  first  chapter  ever  written  in  the  whole  range  of  geological 
literature  under  the  title  given  above,  or  under  any  heading  indicating 
the  line  of  facts  represented  in  the  title.  It  has  been  the  singular  fortune 
of  Ohio  Geology  to  make  known  to  the  world,  during  the  last  five 
years,  two  entirely  new  and  most  unexpected  sources  of  petroleum  and  of 
the  gas  derived  from  it  on  the  large  scale,  viz.,  the  Trenton  limestone  and 
the  Clinton  limestone.  As  shown  in  the  preceding  chapter,  the  former  is 
the  largest  single  source  of  petroleum  now  known  in  the  geological  scale 
of  the  continent.  A  large  part  of  Volume  VI  was  devoted  to  an  account 
of  this  great  discovery.  The  Clinton  limestone  has  acquired  most  of  its 
importance  in  this  connection  within  the  last  three  years,  or  since  the  date 
of  the  last  previous  publication  of  the  Survey,  and  consequently  the  pres- 
ent is  the  first  opportunity  afforded  for  a  distinct  presentation  of  this  new 
history. 

It  is  not  intended  to  convey  the  impression  in  the  above  remarks  that 
petroleum  and  gas  have  never  been  reported  from  the  Clinton  formation 
before.  There  are  numerous  instances  in  which  mention  has  been  made 
of  such  occurrence,  but  no  one  has  heretofore  considered  the  facts  of  im- 
portance and  significance  enough  to  deserve  a  distinct  treatment.  But 
the  time  has  now  come  for  describing  as  fully  as  possible  the  conditions 
under  which  the  Clinton  formation  proves  to  be  petroliferous  on  such  a 
scale  as  to  become  economically  valuable. 

PREVIOUS  MENTION  OP  PETROLEUM  IN  THE  CLINTON  FORMATION. 

An  early  notice  of  the  Clinton  limestone,  as  a  source  of  oil,  is  found 
in  Dr.  John  Locke's  account  of  the  Clinton  limestone,  in  the  Second  An- 
nual Report  of  the  First  Geological  Survey,  1838,  page  225.  In  describing 
that  part  of  the  cliff  limestone  which  has  since  been  separated  from  the 
combined  series  and  identified  as  the  Clinton  limestone,  he  says : 

"  On  striking  with  a  hammer  to  detach  a  specimen,  I  distinctly  per- 
ceived the  odor  of  bitumen,  petroleum,  or  rock  oil.  I  have  since  learned 
that  petroleum  has  been  collected  from  cavities  in  the  rock  by  the  quart." 


228  GEOLOGY   OF   OHIO. 

Another  of  these  previous  references  is  contained  in  the  report  on  the 
geology  of  Preble  county,  Geology  of  Ohio,  Vol.  Ill,  page  407,  1878 : 

"  In  close  connection  with  this  last  named  fact,  viz.,  that  the  forma- 
tion is  made  up  of  organic  remains,  it  is  to  be  added  that  petroleum 
abounds  through  many  of  the  exposures  in  the  county. 

"  When  the  excitement  caused  by  the  discoveries  on  Oil  Creek  was  at 
its  height,  the  show  of  oil  along  the  outcrops  of  this  formation  did  not  fail 
to  attract  attention  and  rights  to  explore  and  develop  the  territory  were 
bought  up  through  several  counties  of  Ohio  and  Indiana.  Companies 
were  formed  and  wells  were  sunk  at  several  points  in  southwestern  Ohio. 
The  deepest  of  these  wells  was  at  Eaton,  where  the  boring  was  carried 
1,170  feet  below  the  surface.  -There  was,  however,  no  geological  promise 
in  these  undertakings.  The  Clinton  limestone,  it  is  true  is  rich  in  pe- 
troleum in  many  localities,  but  its  thickness  does  not  exceed  a  dozen  feet 
and  there  have  been  no  disturbances  in  its  stratification  by  means  of  which 
reservoirs  for  the  oil  have  been  prepared.  When  the  Clinton  limestone 
was  passed  in  the  boring,  the  long  series  of  the  Cincinnati  shales  and  lime- 
stones were  met  with  and  the  1,170  feet  above  named  were  not  enough  to 
exhaust  the  limestone  series  of  the  State.  .  .  .  The  samples  of  rock 
saved  from  different  depths  in  boring  were  turned  over  to  the  Geological 
Survey  by  the  persons  who  had  them  in  charge,  together  with  the  records 
of  the  company.  These  latter  show  alternations  of  hope  and  disappoint- 
ment, dependent  partly  on  the  geological  series  traversed.  The  boring 
was  begun  in  the  Niagara,  and  when  the  Clinton  was  reached,  the  show 
of  petroleum  was  sufficient  to  kindle  a  blaze  of  excitement.  The  telegraph 
was  used  to  announce  to  distant  stockholders  the  success  of  the  enterprise 
and  the  work  of  boring  was  temporarily  arrested  until  a  tank  could  be 
provided  '  so  that  there  might  not  be  a  sinful  waste  of  the  oil.' " 

Again,  in  the  Preliminary  Report  on  petroleum  and  natural  gas, 
Geology  of  Ohio,  1886,  the  follqwing  statement  appears  with  regard  to  the 
Clinton  series  of  the  State  : 

"  It  is  distinctly  petroliferous,  oil  oozing  out  at  numberless  points 
along  its  line  of  outcrops,  and  giving  rise  to  surface  indications  that  led 
twenty-five  years  ago  to  the  expenditure  of  considerable  amounts  of  money 
in  futile  attempts  to  secure  paying  wells  at  this  horizon." 

Again,  in  Volume  VI,  page  12,  Geology  of  Ohio,  1888,  the  following 
statement  was  found  to  be  warranted,  viz. :  "  The  limestone  contains  a 
notable  quantity  of  indigenous  petroleum  throughout  most  of  its  outcrops, 
but  no  very  valuable  accumulations  of  oil  or  gas  have  been  found  in  it  thus 
far.  It  is  the  source  of  the  low  pressure  gas  of  Fremont  (upper  vein), 
and  also  of  the  gas  at  Lancaster,  from  1,962  feet  below  the  surface,  and  at 
Kewark  from  2,100  (2,400)  feet  below  the  surface.  *  *  *  In  a  single 


THE    CLINTON    LIMESTONE.  22Q 

instance  in  Wood  county  it  is  proving  itself  an  oil  rock.  A  well  near 
Trombley,  drilled  to  this  horizon,  has  been  flowing  twenty  to  thirty 
barrels  of  oil  for  a  number  of  months,  the  oil  being  referable  to  this 
horizon." 

These  statements  mark  a  good  deal  of  progress  in  regard  to  this 
formation.  It  was  by  this  time  found  to  be  a  gas  rock  and  oil  rock  under 
cover.  Many  references  occur  in  regard  to  this  series  in  the  body  of  the 
volume,  and  much  interesting  information  can  be  found  as  to  the  petrolif- 
erous production  of  the  Clinton  group  in  Ohio. 

It  thus  appears  that  ever  since  geology  has  been  cultivated  in  Ohio, 
the  Clinton  limestone  has  been  known  to  be  petroliferous ;  that  in  1885  it 
was  found  to  be  a  gas  rock  at  Fremont,  though  of  small  force ;  that  in 
1886  it  was  found  to  be  an  oil  rock  in  Wood  county,  supporting  a  pro- 
duction of  twenty  to  thirty  barrels  per  day  for  several  months  from  a 
single  well;  and  that  in  1887  high  pressure  gas  had  been  discovered 
in  it  at  Lancaster  and  Newark.  The  beginning  of  the  present  import- 
ance of  the  Clinton  limestone  as  a  source  of  gas  and  oil  came  into  view  in 
connection  with  these  last  named  facts. 

COMPOSITION  OF  THE  CLINTON  SEEIES. 

This  widely  extended  series  of  rock  formations  takes  its  name  from 
Clinton,  Oneida  county,  New  York,  where,  in  connection  with  other 
strata,  it  includes  several  valuable  deposits  of  a  unique  and  most  charac- 
teristic iron  ore,  known  variously  as  the  "  fossil  ore,"  the  "  dye-stone  ore," 
the  "flax  seed  ore"  and  the  Clinton  ore,  in  the  different  localities  where 
it  occurs.  This  ore  is  a  red  hematite,  of  fair  grade.  The  peculiarity  of 
its  occurrence  is  that  it  abounds  in  marine  organic  remains,  well  and 
often  beautifully  preserved.  The  red  oxide  of  iron  is  prejudicial  to 
marine  life,  and  wherever  it  abounds  fossils  are  generally  wanting.  The 
replacement  of  fossils  by  this  mineral  is  exceptional  to  a  high  degree.  No 
good  explanation  can  be  given  of  the  chemical  facts  involved  in  this 
peculiarity  of  the  Clinton  ore. 

But  this  well  marked  ore  is  only  one  out  of  several  kinds  of  rocks 
that  belong  in  the  Clinton  series.  In  Western  New  York,  where  the 
series  has  a  considerable  development,  it  is  a  truly  protean  formation. 
Beds  of  limestone,  sandstone  and  shale  alternate  with  the  iron  ore  already 
described  in  its  outcrops.  In  southwestern  Ohio,  as  first  separated  from 
the  Cliff  limestone  and  described  in  the  Geological  Report  of  1869,  it  is 
simply  a  limestone,  well  marked  by  its  composition,  its  lithological 
character,  its  fossils  and  its  stratigraphical  relations.  It  is  not  necessary 
to  describe  these  characteristics  here. 


230  GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO. 

During  the  last  five  years  we  have  had  unexampled  opportunities^ 
through  the  wide-spread  drilling  that  has  been  going  forward,  of  studying 
the  composition  and  character  of  the  several  elements  of  our  scale  as  they 
exist  under  cover  and  far  away  from  their  outcrops.  It  has  been  possible 
to  follow  the  Clinton  formation  in  particular,  with  great  certainty,  by 
means  of  the  definite  characteristics  by  which  it  is  distinguished.  It  is 
enough  to  say  at  this  point  that,  as  it  is  followed  eastward  under  cover 
into  central  Ohio,  the  unity  of  the  formation,  as  shown  in  its  outcrop,  is 
lost,  and  it  is  transformed  from  a  solid  sheet  of  limestone  into  an  al- 
ternating series  of  limestone,  shale  and  iron  ore,  with  which  some  thin 
beds  of  sandstone  are  also  associated ;  and  it  has  been  expanded  from  a 
maximum  of  fifty  feet  in  outcrop  to  two  or  three  times  this  measure 
in  the  district  named.  In  a  word,  the  Clinton  limestone  formation  of 
central  Ohio  is  taking  on  the  characteristics  of  the  formation  in  New 
York. 

THE  GAS  ROCK  OF  THE  CLINTON  FORMATION. 

The  sandstone  above  noted,  so  far  as  the  sparingly  obtained  samples 
show,  is  of  very  sharp  and  well-characterized  grains,  like  the  Hills- 
borough  and  Sylvania  sandstones  that  are  found  in  other  limestone 
horizons.  To  this  interpolated  and  intermingled  sandstone  is  now  as- 
cribed the  very  important  office  of  storing  the  gas  and  oil  of  the  new 
field  in  central  Ohio.  It  is  the  limestone  itself  that  is  petroliferous  in 
the  outcrops  of  the  formation  and  under  the  shallower  cover  of  northern 
Ohio,  and  it  was  from  drillings  identical  in  composition  with  the  Clinton 
limestone  of  these  outcrops  that  the  gas  rock  of  Lancaster  was  first  recog- 
nized. It  was  more  than  a  year  after  the  first  wells  were  drilled  before 
any  correction  was  made  of  the  earlier  statements  with  regard  to  it.  In 
Volume  VI  a  short  account  is  given  of  the  drilling  of  a  number  of  wells 
in  the  Lancaster  field  in  which  the  limestone  is  described  as  the  gas  rock. 
These  statements,  it  will  be  understood,  were  based  upon  the  best  in- 
formation attainable  at  the  time.  According  to  some  later  reports,  how- 
ever, the  Lancaster  gas  rock  is  a  bed  of  sharp  sand,  ranging  from  zero  to 
twenty  feet  in  thickness,  which  is  found  buried  in  the  formation.  It- 
may  be  asked  why  the  statements  in  regard  to  so  important  a  point  in 
this  connection  are  so  indefinite  even  at  this  time?  The  answer  is  to  be 
partially  found  in  the  difficulty  of  getting  accurate  results  from  the  point 
of  the  drill  at  a  depth  of  2,000  feet  or  more,  and  with  the  well  filled  with 
salt  water,  as  it  often  is  when  the  gas  rock  is  reached.  A  part  of  the  con- 
fusion must  also  result  from  careless  observation  on  the  part  of  those 
engaged  in  the  work  of  drilling.  It  is  doubtless  true  that  there  is  some 
sharp  sand  in  the  gas  rock  of  all  the  wells,  but  whether  the  entire  mass* 


THE    CLINTON    LIMESTONE.  23! 

of  the  gas  rock  is  sandstone  has  not  been  demonstrated.  Some  good  ob- 
servers deny  this  and  insist  that  the  account  already  current  is  entirely 
correct. 

It  may  be  urged  that  under  these  circumstances  it  would  be  a  mis- 
nomer to  speak  of  the  Clinton  limestone  as  a  source  of  gas  and  oil,  if  it  is 
a  Clinton  sandstone  that  is  the  real  source.  To  this  it  may  be  answered 
that  alike  in  southern  Ohio  and  in. northern  Ohio,  as  in  the  Fremont  and 
the  Wood  county  fields,  it  is  the  limestone'itself  that  is  petroliferous.  No 
sandstone  has  ever  been  reported  there.  The  limestone  is  also  the  charac- 
teristic element  in  the  deep  wells  of  central  Ohio,  in  any  case,  whether  re- 
enforced  by  a  variable  bed  of  sand  or  not. 

HISTORY  OF  THE  DISCOVERY  AND  UTILIZATION  or  CLINTON  GAS. 

The  early  stages  in  the  discovery  and  utilization  of  high  pressure  gas 
from  the  new  source  at  Lancaster  and  Newark  are  given  in  Volume  VI, 
and  do  not  need  to  be  repeated  in  detail  here.  It  is  enough  to  say  that 
the  people  of  both  these  towns,  in  1886  and  1887,  essayed  to  reach  the 
Trenton  limestone,  and  that  at  a  depth  of  about  2,000  to  2,400  feet — but 
still  at  least  1,000  feet  above  the  goal  for  which  they  had  set  out — they 
found  included  in  the  Clinton  series  a  horizon  of  high -pressure  gas.  In 
both  towns  the  gas  of  the  first  wells  was  feeble,  a  fact  partly  due  to  the 
conditions  under  which  the  drilling  had  gone  forward,  a  heavy  column  of 
salt  water  resisting  the  ascent  of  the  gas  in  the  wells,  but  in  both  cases 
encouragement  was  found  for  further  drilling.  Lancaster  led  the  way, 
and  during  1888  new  wells  were  drilled,  some  of  which  reached  a  daily 
production  of  800,000  cubic  feet.  The  town  was  piped  and  the  gas  was 
brought  into  general  use.  The  supply  ran  short  in  Lancaster  in  the  win- 
ter of  1888  and  1889,  however,  but  the  scarcity  was  soon  relieved  by  the 
discovery,  early  in  1889,  of  a  gas  well  that  would  be  counted  great  in  any 
field.  Other  wells  of  like  character  followed  and  the  town  entered  upon 
a  period  of  great  speculative  excitement,  in  which  large  manufacturing 
enterprises  were  brought  into  it. 

Newark,  in  like  manner,  soon  found  better  wells  than  the  first.  A 
large  number  of  wells  has  been  drilled,  the  town  has  been  partially  piped, 
and  a  considerable  part  of  the  people  are  now  enjoying  the  advantages  of 
gaseous  fuel. 

Meanwhile,  a  gas  line  or  gas  belt  had  been  brought  into  view  through 
this  experience.  Newark  is  northeast  of  Lancaster,  and  this  time-honored 
direction  was  seized  upon  as  the  line  of  fortune.  A  Columbus  company 
took  up  the  work  of  testing  the  intermediate  territory  and  attained  a  great 
success  from  the  start.  Their  wells  are  located  near  Thurston,  on  the 
Toledo  &  Ohio  Central  Railway,  about  thirty  miles  distant  from  Columbus. 


232  GEOLOGY   OF    OHIO. 

Gas  was  introduced  into  Columbus  in  January,  1890,  and  is  coming  into 
extensive  use.  These  are  the  main  features  in  the  history,  but  a  more 
detailed  account  will  be  given  of  the  several  advances  here  named  under 
the  different  sections  that  are  to  follow. 

GEOLOGICAL  SECTION  OF  THE  CLINTON  GAS  WELLS. 

All  of  the  wells  that  hav«  proved  successful  in  finding  gas  in  the 
Clinton  limestone  have  been  begun  in  territory  where  the  Waverly  group 
(Sub -carboniferous),  constitutes  the  surface  rocks.  At  Lancaster,  for 
example,  the  Berea  grit  lies  about  400  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  valley, 
the  interval  being  occupied  by  either  the  drift  or  the  Cuyahoga  shales. 
At  Newark  the  stratum  in  question  is  found  at  a  depth  of  about  550  feet 
below  the  valley  leyel.  At  Thurston  its  position  is  intermediate  between 
these  two  figures,  or  about  500  feet  below.  At  Lancaster  the  condensed 
section  is  about  as  follows : 

Drift  and  Waverly  group,  approximate 500  feet. 

Bedford  and  Ohio  shale 650    " 

Limestone,  Devonian  and  Upper  Silurian 700  to  800  feet. 

Niagara  shale 50  to  80       " 

Clinton  series 75  to  125     " 

The  Newark  section  is  about  the  same  as  the  Lancaster  section,  except 
that  the  Bedford  and  Ohio  shales  show  a  thickness  of  eight  or  nine  hund- 
red feet  against  the  650  feet  in  the  former  section.  In  the  Thurston  sections 
the  drift,  as  a  rule,  ranges  from  150  to  350  feet.  The  Cuyahoga  shale  with 
sandstone  courses  intercalated,  taken  with  the  drift,  makes  up  500  to  550 
feet.  The  great  shale  series  has  a  combined  thickness  of  700  to  800  feet. 
The  limestones  aggregate  as  above  700  feet.  The  Niagara  shale  is  about 
eighty  feet  thick,  and  the  Clinton  shows  a  total  thickness  of  75  to  100  feet. 
It  includes  always  one  and  sometimes  two  red  bands. 

GEOLOGICAL  STRUCTURE  OF  THE  NEW  FIELD. 

Upon  this  point  there  are  not  facts  enough  in  hand  on  which  to  base 
a  theory.  There  is,  of  course,  every  reason  to  believe  that  some  form  of 
relief,  probably  that  produced  by  anticlinal  structure,  lies  at  the  bottom 
of  this  gas  accumulation.  The  northeasterly  trend  of  the  gas  field  is  in 
harmony  with  all  the  earlier  structural  features  of  southern  and  eastern 
Ohio.  The  Cincinnati  Axis  has  this  direction,  marking,  as  has  been  sug- 
gested, the  earliest  folds  of  the  Appalachian  system,  but  going  back  for  its 
date  to  the  end  of  Lower  Silurian  time.  The  low  anticlinals  of  south- 
eastern Ohio  belong  unmistakably  to  the  same  system  as  those  of  western 
Pennsylvania,  and  all  of  them  are  referable  to  that  great  series  of  move- 


THE    CLINTON    LIMESTONE.  233 

ments  to  which  the  eastern  border  of  the  continent  is  due.  The  general 
date  of  these  movements  we  know.  They  took  place  at  the  end  of  Carbon- 
iferous time.  It  is  possible  that  the  structure  to  which  the  accumulation 
of  the  Lancaster  gas  is  owing  belongs  in  date  between  the  two  systems  of 
movements  already  noted,  viz.,  the  disturbance  at  the  close  of  Lower 
Silurian,  and  that  which  took  place  at  the  end  of  Carboniferous  time.  It 
is  further  possible  that  this  particular  movement  has  been  completely 
masked  by  the  subsequent  history  of  the  region.  Upon  an  early  fold  the 
beds  of  later  date  may  have  been  deposited  unconformably,  leaving  no 
trace  of  the  fold  to  show  through  to  the  surface.  This  view  has  been  sug- 
gested in  substance  by  Mr.  John  G.  Deshler,  President  of  the  Central  Ohio 
Natural  Gas  Company,  who  has  taken  a  leading  part  in  the  development 
of  the  new  gas  field.  He  draws  his  conclusion  from  the  facts  that  he  has 
found  in  regard  to  the  thickness  of  the  Ohio  shales  that  overlie  the  great 
limestone  series.  The  shales,  as  before  remarked,  are  about  650  feet  at 
Lancaster,  but  they  expand  rapidly  to  the  eastward.  In  the  experience 
of  the  Columbus  Company,  the  gas  has  thus  far  been  confined  to  areas  where 
the  thickness  of  the  shale  doee  not  exceed  700  to  800  feet.  If  this  be  the 
explanation  of  the  geological  structure  involved,  it  is  obvious  that  the 
discovery  of  such  a  field  must  always  be  altogether  due  to  accident,  as  was 
the  case  in  this  instance.  The  surface  could  furnish  no  clue  whatever. 
Such  a  theory  gives  some  encouragement  to  the  hope  that  in  the  random 
drilling  going  forward  in  this  and  other  portions  of  the  State  other  gas 
or  oil  fields  may  be  struck  upon  arches  that  give  no  sign  of  their  exist- 
ence or  at  least  that  can  show  themselves  in  no  other  way  than  by  respond- 
ing to  the  drill  when  reached  by  it. 

In  Volume  VI  the  suggestion  was  made  that  a  low  arch  is  shown  pas- 
sing near  Lancaster,  the  suggestion  being  based  upon  the  position  which 
the  Berea  grit  holds  at  that  point.  This  appearance  of  an  arch  may  be 
illusory,  the  apparent  uplift  being  due  possibly,  to  the  fact  that  all  our 
strata  rise  to  the  westward,  and  that  this  point  in  the  section  is  a  little 
further  west  than  that  with  which  it  is  connected.  No  other  facts  bearing 
upon  the  existence  of  such  an  arch  have  been  accumulated  by  subsequent 
observations. 

There  is  nothing  to  awaken  any  doubt  that  the  gas  of  the  new  horizon 
is  held  under  salt  water  pressure  and  driven  by  the  same,  as  has  been 
demonstrated  for  the  gas  of  the  Trenton  horizon.  Whether  a  deposit  of 
oil  lies  between  the  water  and  the  gas,  as  a  general  rule,  has  not  been  made 
manifest.  Oil  has  been  struck  in  small  quantity  in  two  wells  at  Lancaster 
and  in  larger  quantity  in  one  well  at  Thurston.  The  presence  of  salt 
water  in  the  gas  rock,  if  it  had  been  found  there,  would  be  masked  to  some 
extent  by  the  presence  of  a  salt  water  horizon  in  the  overlying  Niagara. 


234  GEOLOGY   OF    OHIO. 

That  it  has  been  already  found  in  several  instances,  there  is  no  room  to 
doubt. 

A  brief  account  will  now  be  given  of  the  three  prominent  centers  of 
production  of  Clinton  gas. 

(1)    THE  LANCASTER  GAS  FIELD. 

Within  the  compass  of  about  four  square  miles,  with  Lancaster  as  a 
center,  twelve  or  more  wells  have  now  been  drilled,  eight  of  which  are 
owned  by  the  municipal  corporation,  and  four  by  private  parties.  The 
corporation  will  add  two  more  wells  during  the  present  season,  and  private 
parties  are  likely  to  increase  the  number  still  further.  Beyond  the  limits 
specified  above,  other  wells  are  now  going  down  in  the  immediate  neigh- 
borhood of  the  town. 

The  municipal  corporation  has  raised  $75,000  by  the  sale  of  bonds 
issued  for  this  purpose,  and  has  invested  this  amount,  together  with  the 
entire  proceeds  arising  from  the  gas  plant  thus  far  in  drilling  wells  and 
piping  the  town.  The  corporation  bought  three  or  four  wells  of  the  com- 
pany that  discovered  and  developed  the  gas,  but  none  of  these  wells 
reached  a  capacity  of  more  than  800,000  feet,  while  the  smallest  produc- 
tion was  less  than  100,000  feet  per  day.  One  well  of  this  number  became 
impaired  by  the  caving  of  the  shale  at  an  early  date.  During  the  early 
winter  of  1888  and  1889,  the  gas  supply  ran  very  low  throughout  the 
town,  and  much  discouragement  was  felt  as  to  its  being  maintained  in  a 
large  enough  way  to  justify  the  outlay  which  the  city  had  been  led  to 
make,  but  just  at  this  time,  after  six  of  the  moderate  sized  wells  already 
described  had  been  completed,  and  which  had  seemed  to  show  definitely 
the  character  of  the  field,  a  well  was  drilled  in  the  center  of  the  town  that 
entirely  changed  the  situation  and  gave  altogether  a  new  aspect  to  Clinton 
limestone  gas.  This  well  was  put  down  by  Theodore  Mithoff,  Esq.,  on  a 
city  lot  that  he  owned,  for  the  supply  of  power  to  his  machine  shop.  As 
already  stated,  he  had  no  reason  to  expect  a  well  of  different  character 
from  the  rest  of  the  series  that  had  been  already  completed.  The 
well  was  drilled  without  casing  out  the  salt  water  which  is  uniformly 
found  near  the  bottom  of  the  Niagara  limestone,  and  consequently  there 
was  in  it  a  heavy  column  of  the  brine  during  the  later  stages  of  drilling. 
The  gas  rock  was  reached  on  Sunday,  February  17,  1889,  at  a  depth  of 
1,948  feet,  which  showed  a  marked  elevation  of  the  surface  of  the  rock,  as 
compared  with  the  level  in  the  surrounding  wells  of  the  Clinton  lime- 
stone ;  this  well  was  peculiar  also  in  this  respect,  that  the  Clinton  con- 
tained no  red  rock  in  its  uppermost  beds.  There  was  instead  twenty  to 
twenty-five  feet  of  a  very  hard  stratum  in  its  place.  When  this  hard 


THE   CLINTON     LIMESTONE.  235 

stratum  had  been  passed,  the  average  amount  of  gas  for  the  Lancaster 
wells  was  promptly  found,  but  for  some  reasons  the  owner  insisted  on 
the  drill  being  kept  still  at  work.  A  hard  shell  was  found  below  the  first 
gas  vein,  and  when  this  was  penetrated  it  was  obvious  that  a  much  larger 
volume  was  sent  out  than  had  been  obtained  from  any  previons  well  in 
the  field.  The  productive  rock  had  now  been  penetrated  to  a  depth  of 
fifteen  feet,  and  the  open  flow  of  the  gas  showed  a  pressure  of  one  and  a 
half  pounds  in  the  center  of  the  casing.  This  stands  for  a  volume  of 
about  seven  and  one-third  million  feet  per  day.  The  salt  water  that  entered 
above  the  gas  was  thrown  out  with  the  gas  in  a  storm  of  spray.  On  a 
succeeding  day  the  drill  was  got  down  six  or  eight  feet  deeper  still,  and 
by  this  time  a  really  great  gas  well  was  opened  in  the  Clinton  limestone. 
The  open  pressure  rose,  according  to  the  observations  of  Prof.  G.  W. 
Welch,  to  three  and  seven-eighths  pounds,  which  stands  for  12  000,000 
feet  per  day.  The  well  was  finally  tubed  with  three-inch  pipe  and  was 
packed,  and  its  daily  volume  was  thus  brought  down  to  something  less 
than  7,000,000  feet  per  day,  its  open  pressure  in  the  three-inch  pipe  being 
eighteen  pounds. 

The  proposition  for  increasing  the  bonded  indebtedness  of  the  town 
for  obtaining  a  gas  supply  was  pending  at  this  time.  If  the  vote  had 
been  taken  on  Saturday,  before  this  well  was  drilled  in,  it  would  probably 
have  been  defeated,  but  after  the  discovery  of  such  a  supply  the  propo- 
sition carried  triumphantly.  The  flow  of  the  gas  was  turned,  by  special 
arrangement  of  the  owner,  into  the  scantily  filled  lines  of  the  city  service, 
and  for  the  first  time  a  full  and  vigorous  supply  was  enjoyed  by  the  town. 
The  well,  as  has  been  stated,  was  never  cased  and  its  condition  has  always 
been  unsatisfactory,  more  or  less  salt  water  being  thrown  with  the  gas. 
The  water  is  accounted  for  by  the  imperfect  packing  of  the  well.  Proba- 
bly enough  gas  has  been  sold  from  this  well  to  the  city  line  to  pay  the 
cost  of  drilling,  and  fuel  has  been  constantly  supplied  for  the  machine- 
shops,  above  referred  to,  since  its  completion.  The  well,  in  its  best  daysr 
would  attain  a  pressure  of  650  pounds  in  three-quarters  of  a  minute. 

The  municipal  corporation  drilled  the  next  well  (well  No.  6).  It  was 
located  on  the  county  fair  grounds  and  was  completed  in  the  summer  of 
1889.  Its  record  was  not  marked  by  any  unusual  features,  but  in  volume 
it  nearly  equaled  the  Mithoff  well.  Its  initial  flow  was  estimated  at 
10,000,000  feet  per  day.  The  next  well  drilled  by  the  city  (well  No.  7),  to 
the  north  of  the  fair  grounds,  proved  entirely  unproductive.  The  rock 
was  hard  and  close.  The  effect  of  a  torpedo  might  well  be  tried  in  such 
a  case. 

One  other  well,  No.  9,  drilled  by  the  city  during  the  past  year,  has 
also  proved  unproductive,  but  well  No.  8,  located  one-half  mile  east  of 


236  GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO. 

the  fair  grounds,  yielded  six  to  eight  million  feet  from  the  casing  when 
first  completed.  These  two  fine  wells  make  the  reliance  of  the  city. 

The  strange  folly  that  seems  bound  up  in  the  heart  of  a  municipal 
corporation  when  it  obtains  a  good  supply  of  gas,  that  it  must  find  some 
one  that  can  use  the  fuel  up  in  the  largest  way  and  most  rapidly  to  whom 
to  give  it,  without  money  and  without  price,  broke  out  also  in  Lancaster.  An 
ill-omened  arch,  bearing  the  illuminated  inscription,  "  Free  gas  to  manu- 
facturers," spans  the  main  street  of  the  town  at  the  railroad  crossing.  A 
ten-pot  window  glass  works  was  the  first  factory  to  be  brought  in  under 
the  new  offer.  Under  the  most  economical  management  a  ten-pot  furnace 
will  consume  700,000  cubic  feet  of  gas  per  day.  The  municipal  corpora- 
tion agreed  to  furnish  all  the  fuel  required,  without  limitation  and  with- 
out charge.  The  company  was  organized  and  managed  by  a  number  of 
glass  blowers  from  the  eastern  field ;  on  the  co-operative  plan  the  capital 
was  drawn  from  Lancaster,  the  city  giving  it  free  gas  and  the  citizens 
furnishing  besides  five  and  one-half  acres  of  land  and  $14,000  in  cash, 
the  amount  required  to  put  up  the  works.  The  last  item  was  regarded  as 
a  loan. 

The  cost  of  the  plant  was,  in  fact,  $19,000,  and  the  company  started  in 
without  proper  working  capital.  It  was  in  operation  from  October,  1889*, 
to  April,  1890.  Its  output  was  sold  at  10  per  cent,  below  the  regular  rates. 
In  April,  1890,  the  establishment  passed  into  the  hands  of  a  receiver,  by 
whom  it  was  sold  in  June  for  $15,000.  The  furnace  used  Massillon  and 
Toledo  sand  and  Kelley's  Island  ground  limestone.  The  failure  is  held 
to  have  resulted  from  a  lack  of  proper  business  management. 

The  Teil  de  Granmont  Optical  and  Plate  Glass  Company  was  organ- 
ized inHhe  summer  of  1889,  with  a  capital  stock  of  $100,000.  The  citizens 
of  Lancaster  took  $40,000  in  stock,  liable  to  a  60  per  cent,  assessment,  the 
returns  from  which  were  to  be  guaranteed  as  30  per  cent,  on  the  invest- 
'ment.  A  building  site  was  also  furnished  free.  The  plant  has  never  been 
put  into  operation.  The  company  assigned  in  April  and  the  sheriff  sold 
the  plant  for  $8,000,  the  cost  of  which  was  not  lees  than  $20,000  It  is 
expected  to  convert  this  also  into  a  window  glass  factory. 

A  rolling  mill,  built  by  eastern  capital  in  large  part,  is  also  getting 
ready *for  operation.  To  it  is  assigned,  for  its  fuel  supply,  another  of  the 
large  wells  of  Lancaster,  viz.,  the  well  that  is  known  as  "  The  Judge." 
Several  other  factories  have  been  brought  in,  including  an  auger  works 
and  a  buggy  seat  factory. 

A  vigorous  movement  was  begun  in  real  estate  a  year  ago,  but  the 
failure  of  the  manufacturing  enterprises  established  here,  as  noted  above, 
has  checked  the  speculative  spirit  for  the  present.  The  town  feels,  how- 
ever, the  effect  of  the  great  discovery,  and  if  the  gas  supply  shows  even  a 


THE  CLINTON    LIMESTONE.  237 

moderate  vitality  it  must  reap,  in  various  ways,  large  advantage  from  its 
surprising  fortune. 

Fuel  is  supplied  in  the  city  at  the  following  rates,  viz. :  Cook  stoves 
using  a  No.  5  mixer,  $1.00  per  month,  or  $12.00  per  year ;  heating  stoves 
using  a  No.  5  mixer,  $1.00  per  month,  or  $7.00  per  year.  Whether  any 
funds  are  ever  saved  from  the  gas  receipts  to  pay  the  gas  bonds  as  they 
fall  due  or  not,  the  people  are  already  receiving  their  pay  in  the  reduction 
of  fuel  bills,  let  alone  the  advantages  that  they  enjoy  in  the  use  of  the 
most  perfect  form  of  fuel. 

A  good  measure  of  economy  in  the  use  of  the  gas  has  been  main- 
tained on  the  whole.  Comparatively  little  has  been  consumed  in  vain 
display.  The  most  striking  exception  occurred  in  the  fall  of  1889,  soon 
after  the  fair  grounds  well  was  brought  in.  Four-inch  pipe  was  laid 
entirely  around  the  half  mile  race  track,  opening  into  frequent  stand- 
pipes.  By  this  means  the  track  was  lighted  up  at  night  as  never  race 
trackjwas  lighted  before,  and  the  trials  of  speed  went  forward  under  this 
wanton  illumination.  The  idea  was  novel  and  the  scene  unique  and 
brilliant,  but  the  waste  was  barbaric  all  the  same. 

The  rock  pressure  of  the  field  now  stands  at  about  450  pounds.  It 
has  been  reported  as  high  as  700  pounds  in  single  wells  and  probably 
attained  a  higher  figure  in  some.  During  the  last  year  it  has  gradually  fallen 
to  the  figure  which  it  now  shows.  The  drain  on  the  field  has  been  on  the 
whole  very  light.  If  two  glass  furnaces  and  a  rolling  mill  get  under  full 
headway  this  fall,  the  first  real  test  of  the  supply  will  be  made. 

The  city  has  little  or  no  land  leased  outside  of  the  corporation.  The 
county  infirmary  farm  which  lies  two  miles  to  the  northeast  of  the  town. 
is  held  for  the  use  of  the  corporation,  and  the  county  commissioners  are 
now  engaged  in  sinking  a  well  on  this  tract.  But  almost  every  thing  else 
in  a  northeast  direction,  and  for  two  or  three  miles  in  breadth  between 
Lancaster  and  Newark,  has  been  secured  by  the  Columbus  company.  The 
city  must  soon  feel  the  need  of  more  territory  if  its  use  of  gas  for  manu- 
facturing purposes  is  much  extended,  or  even  if  it  is  continued  upon  the 
scale  on  which  it  is  now  established.  Additions  may  be  made  to  product- 
ive territory  in  unexpected  quarters,  of  course,  which  may  effect  the 
needful  relief. 

(2)     THE  NEWARK  GAS  FIELD. 

The  earlier  history  of  the  search  for  natural  gas  at  Newark  has 
been  duly  chronicled  in  Volume  VI.  The  Everett  Glass  Works  are 
established  and  in  operation  in  the  town.  The  competition  arising 
from  the  use  of  natural  gas  in  this  manufacture,  both  in  Pennsyl- 
vania and  in  northwestern  Ohio,  was  being  constantly  more  keenly  felt 
by  the  proprietor,  and  he  counted  it  to  his  interest  to  leave  no  stone  un- 


238  GEOLOGY   OF    OHIO. 

the  search  for  gas,  upon  which  he  entered.    The  record  of  this  determined 
pursuit  is  given  in  Volume  VI.     At  2,240  feet  a  strong  flow  of  heavy 
brine  was  struck,  which  rose  1.700  feet  in  the  well.     We  now  know  the 
horizon  at  which  this  salt  water  appeared.     It  is  the  bottom  of  the  Niagara 
limestone,  or  the  dividing  line  between  the  limestone  and '  the  shale.     At 
2,385  feet  a  small  volume  of  gas  was  found  between  two  beds  of  red  rock, 
which  helped  to  determine  the  horizon.     The  well,  however,  was  in  bad 
condition  and  soon  became  valueless,  and  the  most  that  wras  obtained 
from  it  was  the  assurance  that  the  Lancaster  gas  rock  was  to  be  found 
also  in  Newark.     A  new  well  was  forthwith  projected,  removed  two  miles 
from  well  No.  1,  and  guided  by  a  knowledge  of  what  was  to  be  expected, 
much  more  rapid  and  satisfactory  progress  was  made  in  the  drilling. 
The  lower  salt  water  was  duly  cased   out  with  four-and-a-quarter-inch 
casing,  and  the  gas  rock  was  reached  in  good  condition.     A  fair  flow  of 
dry  gas,  probably  300,000  feet  per  day,  rewarded  the  driller.     It  was  piped 
at  once  to  the  glass  works  and  put  into  use  there  as  far  as  it  would  go. 
The  supply  was  not  sufficient,  however,  to  meet  all  the  requirements  of 
the  works.     Other  wells  were  drilled  forthwith  with  similar  results,  and 
finally  a  supply  largely  in  excess  of  the  demands  of  the  glass  works  was 
secured.     The  largest  production  of  any  one  well  would  probably  reach  a 
million  feet  per  day.     In  1889  Mr.  Everett  counted  the  supply  and  the 
promise  of  the  field  good  enough  to  warrant  the  piping  of  the  town  with 
reference  to  furnishing  gaseous  fuel  for  domestic  use.     There  has  been 
laid  within  the  corporation  limits  up  to  the  present  date  something  like 
twenty  miles  of  pipe  of  varying  sizes,  and  the  central  portion  of  the  town 
has  been  already  mainly  reached.     The  glass  works,  an  eight-pot  bottle 
furnace,  has  also  been  dependent  on  the  line  for  the  larger  part  of  its  fuel, 
but  during  the  last  winter  there  was  not  enough  for  both  uses.     Mr 
Everett  and  the  interests  represented  by  him  have  secured  the  gas  rights 
of  something  like  12,000  acres  of  land,  extending  towards  Lancaster  for  a 
distance  of  five  or  six  miles,  and  also  extending  beyond  Newark  to  the 
northeast.     Six  wells  have  been  drilled  south  of  the  town,  tAvo  of  which 
are  entirely  unproductive.     Three  wells  have  been  drilled  north  of  the 
town,  including  the  first  which  was  lost  through  ignorance  of  the  condi- 
tions of  the  field,  and  a  fourth  is  now  nearing  the  gas  rock.     One  well 
north,  and  one  south  of  the  town  rank  about  alike,  each  reaching  a  pro- 
duction of  about  one  million  feet  per  day.     The  wells  connected  with  the 
pipe  line  are  thought  to  average  about  500,000  cubic  feet  per  day. 

The  rock  pressure  of  the  wells  was  originally  800  pounds  per  square 
inch.  This  high  pressure  gives  a  great  advantage  to  the  field.  It  is 
counted  desirable  to  constantly  maintain  a  back  pressure  on  the  wells  of 
at  least  300  pounds,  but  under  the  exigencies  of  the  demand  this  pressure 


THE    CLINTON    LIMESTONE. 


239 


has  often  been  withdrawn,  but  never  without  endangering  the  wells.  Salt 
water  appears  promptly  and  unmistakably  in  one  or  two  of  them  under 
such  conditions.  The  rock  pressure  and  the  volume  of  the  wells  are  both 
undoubtedly  declining,  but  just  how  rapidly  is  not  known.  The  main 
object  of  the  line  is  to  furnish  gas  for  domestic  use.  The  furnishing  of 
power  is  not  attempted  at  the  present,  and  it  may  result  that  the  glass 
works,  for  which  the  search  was  originally  begun,  will  be  suspended  in 
the  interest  of  adding  to  the  public  supply.  It  can  be  counted  that  the 
furnace  above  named  will  consume  somewhat  more  than  a  half  million 
feet  per  day.  The  rates  for  gas  in  the  town  are  the  same  as  the  Dayton 
*nd  Piqua  rates. 

PRICE  OF  GAS  FOB  FUEL  AND  HEATING  PURPOSES  IN  NEWARK. 
For  Cooking,  from  November  1st  to  May  1st, 


Monthly  Charges. 

Wo.  7  Mixer $2  78 

No.  5  Mixer....  2  22 


Dis. 

28  cts. 
22cte. 


If  paid  in  advance 
before  the  10th. 

Charges. 

$2  50 

2  00 


From  May  1st  to  November  1st. 


No.  7  Mixer $1  66 

No.  6        "    .  1  39 


16  cts. 
14  « 


For  Large  Cooking  Range  from  November  1st  to  May  1st, 
No.  9  Mixer $3  33  33  cts. 

From    May  1st   to  November  1st. 
No.  9  Mixer $2  22  22  cts. 

For  Laundry  when  Gas  is  Furnished  for  Cook-stove  alto. 


No.  7  Mixer $1  11 

No.  5  "     "     ,  83 


11  cts. 
08  " 


For  Heating,  No.  7  Mixer. 


1st 

2d 

3d 

4th 

5th 

6th 


1st 

2d 

3d 

4th 

5th 

6th 


Mixer. $5  00 

"      444 

"      3  89 

«.;;  3  33 

"      , 2  78 

"'     .  2  22 


Annual  Charges. 


Mixer $30  00 

"      26  64 

"      23  34 

"      19  98 

"      16  68 

«  13  32 


$3  00 
2  64 
2  34 
1  98 
1  68 
1  32 


$1  50 
1  25 


$3  00 


$2  00 


$1  00 
75 


$4  50 
4  00 
3  50 
3  00 
2  50 
2  00 


$27  00 
24  00 
21  00 
18  00 
15  00 
12  00 


240 


GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO. 


No.  5  Mixer. 

Monthly  Charges.  Discount. 

1st    Mixer , $389  39  cts. 

2d        "      3  33  33 

3d        "      2  78  28 

4th      "      .' 2  22  22 

5th      "      1  66  16 

6th      "      1  39  14 


If  paid  in  advance 
before  the  10th. 

Charges. 
$3  50 
3  00 
2  50 
2  00 
1  50 
1  25 


Annual  Charges. 


1st 

2d 

3d 

4th 

5th 

6th 


Mixer $23  34 

"      19  98 

"      , 16  68 

"      13  32 

"      9  96 

"      ....  8  34 


$2  34 

1  98 

1  68 

1  32 

96 

84 


Furnaces,  Monthly  Charges. 


Mixer,  21  in  f.  p $6  95 


24 
'26 
28 
30 
35 


8  66 

9  44 

10  00 

11  66 
13  89 


A  Mixer,  21  in  f,  p $41  70 


B 
C 
D 


24 
26 
28 
30 
35 


51  96 
56  64 
60  00 
69  96 
83  34 


$  70 
86 
94 

1  00 
1  16 
1  39 


_  Furnaces,  Annual  Contracts. 


$4  20 
5  16 

5  64 

6  00 
6  96 
8  34 


No.  3  Mixer  (for  Heating  Small  Rooms  and  for  Special  Purposes). 


Monthly— 1st  Mixer $2  22 

Monthly— 2d  Mixer 1  66 


22  cts. 
16  cts. 


$6  25 

7  80 

8  50 

9  00 
10  50 
12  50 


$37  50 
46  80 
51  00 
54  00 
63  00 
75  00 


$2;  oo 

' 


(3)    THE  THURSTON  FIELD. 

The  production  of  the  district  now  to  be  considered  is  by  far  the  largest 
and  most  important  that  has  thus  far  been  derived  from  the  new  gas  rock. 
It  comprises  parts  of  four  township's,  viz.,  Pleasant  and  Walnut  town- 
ships of  Fairfield  county,  and  Union  and  Licking  townships  of  Licking 
county.  The  most  of  the  developments  thus  far  are  confined  to  Walnut 
township,  in  which  a  dozen  or  more  wells  have  been  already  drilled.  The 


THE    CLINTON     LIMESTONE.  241 

discovery  of  the  field  is  due,  more  than  to  any  other  one  person,  to  Mr. 
J.  0.  Johnston,  Superintendent  of  the  Central  Ohio  Natural  Gas  Com- 
pany, an  operator  of  experience  in  the  eastern  field  and  also  practically 
acquainted  with  the  new  oil  field  of  northern  Ohio.  He  had  been  en- 
gaged in  the  work  of  exploration  that  is  now  going  forward  in  Newark 
and  Lancaster.  It  was  a  natural  thing  .for  him  to  connect  these  two 
points  on  the  map,  following  the  analogy  furnished  by  many  of  the 
famous  fields  of  Pennsylvania,  in  which  the  axes  of  the  anticlinals  can 
be  traced  for  miles  in  an  unbroken  direction,  swerving  neither  to  the 
right  nor  to  the  left.  The  direction  in  this  case  was  easily  determined  by 
the  wells  drilled  at  the  points  named  above.  It  was  a  line  bearing  north, 
twenty  degrees  east,  a  line  that  is  held  in  honor  in  many  Pennsylvania 
fields.  A  company  was  soon  formed  in  Columbus  in  which  abundant 
capital,  energy  and  business. sagacity  were  happily  joined.  After  a  fair 
acreage  had  been  secured  a  trial  well  was  drilled  near  Thurston.  The 
well  was  drilled  deep  enough  into  the  Clinton  limestone  to  render  it 
certain  that  gas  was  to  be  found  in  this  field  also,  but  the  work  was  sus- 
pended at  this  point  and  the  leasing  of  land  to  protect  the  discovery 
already  made  was  continued  along  the  line  indicated.  As  a  final  result, 
a  belt  two  to  three  miles  wide,  extending  from  the  corporate  limits  of 
Lancaster  on  the  south  to  within  four  or  five  miles  of  Newark  has  been 
secured.  For  the  larger  part  of  the  distance  the  territory  is  held  by  the 
company  in  almost  unbroken  and  continuous  possession,  so  far  as  the  gas 
rights  of  the  land  are  concerned.  Along  the  northern  boundary  of  its 
leases  the  lands  of  the  Newark  Company  interlock  to  some  extent,  but 
two  wells  drilled  by  the  latter  company  on  the  line,  as  was  thought,  and 
six  miles  distant  from  Newark,  have  proved  unproductive. 

After  securing  and  proving  the  territory,  the  next  step  was  to  obtain 
the  right  to  supply  Columbus  with  natural  gas.  A  liberal  franchise  was 
granted  by  the  city  council,  and  during  1889  eastern  capital  was  enlisted 
in  the  enterprise,  and  the  construction  of  the  pipe  line  was  begun.  The 
line- is  a  ten-inch  pipe  of  the  best  quality  and  construction.  It  has  a 
length  of  thirty  miles  from  the  field  to  the  city  limits.  The  entire  plant 
of  the  company,  both  in  the  field  and  in  the  city,  has  been  kept  up  to 
the  highest  standard  of  excellence  and  efficiency  from  the  first.  No  ex- 
pense has  been  spared  in  obtaining  the  best  possible  results.  The  line 
was  completed  in  December  and  gas  was  introduced  in  this  city  early  in 
January  of  the  present  year.  A  distressing  accident  that  occurred  a  few 
weeks  after  the  gas  was  introduced,  through  a  leakage  from  an  uncaulked 
joint  into  the  gravel  trenches  and  thence  into  the  cellars  of  buildings  con- 

16         G. 


242  ,          GEOLOGY    dF    OHIO. 

tiguous  to  the  line,  put  back  the  introduction  to  a  considerable  extent 
for  the  winter.  But  all  the  closely  built  portions  of  the  city  are  now 
being  reached  by  the  lines  of  the  company,  and  the  coming  winter  will 
doubtless  find  at  least  45,000  people  enjoying  the  advantages  of  the  supply. 
Gas  is  furnished  for  power  in  considerable  amount  by  the  company.  It 
has  also  felt  called  upon  to  furnish  fuel  to  the  Hayden  Rolling  Mill, 
to  the  Hallwood  Paving  Block  Works,  and  to  a  half  dozen  other  factories; 
several  of  these  are  large  consumers,  not  less  than  a  million  and  a  half  feet 
per  day  being  required  by  the  rolling  mill.  These  coarse  industries  ought 
not  to  have  the  advantage  of  this  superfine  fuel,  even  though  they  pay 
for  it  at  the  current  rates.  If  they  can  afford  to  pay  as  much  for  it  as 
is  charged  for  the  gas  used  in  domestic  supply,  then  a  high  enough  price 
is  not  charged  for  the  latter  service.  If  such  works  require  gaseous  fuel, 
they  should  make  it  for  themselves.  Some  consolation  can  be  found  in 
the  fact  that  these  industries,  by  their  enormous  consumption  of  the 
natural  supply,  will  all  the  sooner  inaugurate  the  coming  era  of  artificial 
fuel  gas. 

The  original  pressure  in  the  Thurston  field  was  about  700  pounds. 
The  volumes  of  the  larger  wells  have  reached  seven  or  eight  million  feet 
per  day.  A  few  dry  holes  have  been  found.  When  such  a  case  occurs, 
either  here  or  in  the  Newark  field,  the  cause  is  plainly  found  in  the 
irregular  and  interrupted  stratification  of  the  Clinton  formation.  "Beds 
of  shale  alternate  with  the  limestones,  and  the  sharp  sandstone  which 
serves  as  a  receptacle  of  the  gas  is  wanting  in  the  section.  The  porosity 
of  the  series  is  effectually  interfered  with  by  the  intercalation  of  the  shales. 

The  rates  for  gas  in  force  at  Columbus  are  the  Toledo  rates,  the 
schedule  of  the  latter  city  being  adopted  without  change.  Gas  is  fur- 
nished by  meter  to  small  consumers  at  ten  cents  per  thousand.  The  com- 
pany aims  to  charge  its  largest  consumers  eight  cents  per  thousand  feet. 

SUMMARY. 

The  most  surprising  chapter  in  the  Geology  of  Ohio  is  herewith  com- 
pleted. Though  following  the  discovery  of  the  immensely  valuable 
accumulations  of  gas  and  oil  in  the  Trenton  limestone,  there  was  scarcely 
a  better  preparation  from  this  experience  for  the  history  that  has  now  been 
traced  than  there  would  have  been  without  it,  and  there  is  far  less  of 
rational  explanation  of  the  facts  of  gag  production  in  the  new  field  than 
was  obtained  at  the  outset  in  the  Findlay  field.  A  structure  necessarily 
favorable  to  the  accumulation  of  gas  and  oil  was  brought  to  view  in  Find- 
lay  as  soon  as  the  development  fairly  began ;  but  at  the  end  of  three  years 
there  is  nothing  known  of  the  new  field  at  all  comparable  in  significance 


THE    CLINTON    LIMESTONE  243 

with  the  great  structural  features  brought  to  light  in  northwestern  Ohio. 
This  difference  is  due  in  good  part  to  the  difference  in  the  expense  of 
drilling  in  the  two  fields.  In  the  Findlay  district  $800  or  $1,000  makes 
ample  provision  for  a  well,  and  consequently  wells  are  multiplied  on 
every  side.  In  the  Clinton  a  well  costs  from  $4,000  to  $5,000,  and  the 
number  of  tests  is  consequently  small.  It  is  much  to  be  hoped  that  the 
dominating  facts  of  structure,  for  assuredly  such  there  are,  will  be  brought 
to  light  during  the  extensive  exploration  that,  is  now  going  forward. 
These  facts  can  not  fail  to  enrich  geological  science  if  they  are  discovered 
and  made  known. 

DEEP  WELLS  DRILLED  AT  OTHER  PLACES  IN  SEARCH  OF  CLINTON  GAS. 

The  success  that  the  drill  had  achieved  in  the  districts  named  above, 
has  awakened  or  renewed  the  courage  of  many  communities  in  their  search 
for  natural  gas,  and  during  the  last  year  several  wells  were  drilled  or 
deepened  to  an  unusual  depth  that  would  not  have  been  thought  of  except 
for  the  success  of  Lancaster  and  Newark. 

Amanda. — One  of  these  deep  wells  was  drilled  in  the  village  of 
Amanda,  eight  miles  fouthwest  of  Lancaster.  It  was  begun  by  the 
Amanda  Natural  Gas  Company  in  October,  1887,  a  contract  having  been 
made  that  it  .should  be  carried  to  a  depth  of  2,000  feet.  The  work  went 
forward  very  slowly.  A  little  gas  was  discovered  in  the  Ohio  shale  at 
480  feet,  and  another  small  volume  in  the  Clinton  at  1,680  feet,  but  the 
latter  horizon  was  not  reached  until  August,  1888.  Salt  water  was  struck 
at  1,000  feet  in  the  Lower  Helderberg  limestone,  but  it  was  not  cased  off 
until  the  Niagara  shale  had  been  reached  at  a  depth  of  1,635  feet.  Regular 
casing  was  put  in  to  this  depth  and  afterwards  four  and  a  quarter  casing 
was  set  408  feet  below  this  point.  The  Clinton  limestone  being  found 
without  value  it  was  then  decided  to  sink  the  well  to  the  Trenton  lime- 
stone. A  new  company  was  organized  and  the  work  resumed  in  1889, 
but  after  spending  a  good  deal  of  money  the  tools  were  left  at  the  bottom 
of  the  well  at  2,785  feat,  at  least  100  feet  above  the  upper  surface  of  the 
Trenton  limestone.  The  section  was  carefully  reported  to  the  survey 
from  time  to  time  by  W.  J.  Dum,  Esq ,  all  the  lower  part  of  the  record 
being  verified  by  samples  of  the  rock  drillings.  The  record  reduced  is  as 
follows : 

Drift .' 57  feet. 

Cuyahoga  shale  and  Waverly  black  shale 93 

Barea  grit , 10 

Bedford  and  Ohio  shales  775 

Devonian  and  Upper  Silurian  limestones 550 

Niagara  shale 175 

Clinton  limestone  45 

*   Medina  shale 145 

Hudson  River  and  Utica  shales  1,042 


244  GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO. 

The  figures  in  the  last  line  do  not  exhaust  the  series.  The  well  was 
dry  when  the  tools  were  lost. 

Mi.  Vernon. — A  good  deal  of  drilling  has  been  done  first  and  last  in 
Mt.  Vernon  and  in  its  immediate  vicinity.  It  might  have  been  safely 
concluded  that  there  was  not  a  great  deal  more  to  be  learned  in  regard  to 
its  underground  geology.  It  did  not  seem  so,  however,  to  its  ambitious 
business  men,  and  legislative  authority  was  procured,  allowing  the  munic- 
ipal corporation  to  expend  $10,000  of  public  money  in  making  more 
thorough  tests  of  the  possibilities  of  the  town  in  the  way  of  gaseous  fuel. 
To  this  course  they  were  led  in  large  part  by  the  experience  of  Lancaster 
and  Newark,  and  by  an  erroneous  geological  inference  which  they  had 
drawn  for  themselves  from  this  experience.  Lancaster  found  the  gas  rock 
at  2,000  feet  below  the  surface;  Thurston  at  2,200  feet,  and  Newark  at 
2,400  feet  below.  The  erroneous  inference  referred  to  was,  that  since  Mt. 
Vernon  is  situated  as  far  north  of  Newark  as  Newark  is  north  of  Lancas- 
ter, the  Clinton  limestone  ought  to  be  correspondingly  deeper  at  Mt.  Ver- 
non  than  at  Newark.  A  well  was  drilled  at  Mt.  Vernon  in  1887  to  a  depth 
of  2,600  feet.  As  no  value  was  found  in  this  well,  the  gas  trustees  held 
that  the  Clinton  limestone  had  not  been  reached  in  it.  This,  however, 
was  a  mistake.  The  place  of  the  Clinton  is  about  2,200  feet  below  the 
surface,  and  it  had  been  passed  through  in  the  well  in  question  several 
hundred  feet  before  the  drill  was  stopped. 

The  gas  trustees  determined  to  include  the  Trenton  limestone  also 
in  their  search,  if  the  Clinton  failed  them,  and  contracts  were  drawn  for 
the  drilling  of  two  wells  3,500  feet  deep,  with  the  privilege  of  stopping 
the  work  at  1,500  feet,  or  any  point  below.  The  record  of  the  first  well, 
which  was  completed  in  the  fall  of  1889,  is  as  follows: 

Drift 224  feet. 

Cuyahoga  shale  and  Berea  shale  173 

Berea  grit,  carrying  salt  water 38 

Bedford  and  Ohio  shales  , 705 

Corniferous  limestone  and  Upper  Silurian  limestone 895 

Niagara  shale 90 

Clinton  reached  at 2,125 

Bedrock , 18 

Shale  and  sand 20 

Bedrock 50 

Hard  sand 15 

'     Medina  shale,  beginning  at 2,275 

Hudson  River  shale,  beginning  at 2,475 

Well  fiuished,  probably  in  Utica  shale,  at 3,200 

Salt  water  was  struck  at  1,725;  a  still  stronger  vein  at  1,765  feet,  the 
water  rising  to  within  100  feet  of  the  surface.  The  horizon  which  produced 
it  was  the  Lower  Helderberg  limestone.  The  well  was  cased  with  four-and- 


THE    CLINTON    LIMEbTONE  245 

a-quarter-inch  pipe  to  1,972  feet,  and  was  kept  dry  thereafter  to  3,200  feet. 
Nothing  of  value  was  found  in  the  lower  portion  of  the  column,  but  at  a 
depth  of  about  900  feet  a  considerable  flow  of  gas  was  observed.  It  was 
cased  out  in  the  progress  of  drilling,  but  when  nothing  eke  was  realized 
from  the  well  the  casing  wa.-?  drawn  to  the  point  noted  (891  feet),  Snd 
what  gas  was  found  there  was  turned  to  account.  In  December,  1889, 
the  volume  was  measured  and  was  found  to  be  78,000  feet  per  day.  It 
gained  a  pressure  of  145  pounds  in  one  hour,  and  185  pounds  in  one  and 
a  half  hours.  It  was  utilized  by  being  conveyed  to  the  boilers  of  the 
water-works  pumping  station,  near  which  the  well  was  drilled.  The  gas 
has  been  considerably  reduced  since  that  time.  The  second  well  was 
drilled  to  the  Clinton  limestone  only.  Nothing  of  value  has  been  re- 
ported from  it. 

Man-«field. — A  well  was  begun  at  Mansfield  early  in  the  excitement  in 
regard  to  the  Trenton  Kmestone,  with  the  expectation  of  finding  this  rock 
within  easy  striking  distance.  But  as  its  horizon  seemed  to  recede  before 
the  drill,  one  company  after  another  became  discouraged  and  laid  down 
the  work  of  attempting  to  find  it.  Encouragement  to  make  the  final 
trial  was  undoubtedly  derived  from  the  success  of  Lancaster  and  Newaik.  . 
When  at  last  the  Trenton  limestone  was  reached,  Mansfield  had  one  of 
the  deepest  wells  of  the  State.  Its  record,  in  britf,  is  as  follows  : 

Sandstone,  Logan  group  ; 140  feet. 

Cuyahoga  shale 4CO 

Berea  shale » 40 

Berea  grit 15 

Bedford  aAl  Ohio  shales 640 

Devonian  and  Upper  Silurian  limestones  945 

Medina,  Hudson  River  and  Utica  shales  1,314 

Trenton  struck  at  3,550  feet;  well  completed  at  3,594  feet.  The  5f- 
inch  casing  extends  to  561  feet,  and  4^-inch  casing  to  2,200  feet.  The  well 
was  necessarily  an  expensive  one,  the  last  rate  for  drilling  being  $5.00  a 
foot.  Three  different  contractors  were  employed.  The  company  was 
reorganized  several  times  during  the  progress  of  the  work.  The  Clinton 
was  well  marked  in  the  descent,  but  was  found  to  be  without  value.  The 
Trenton  limestone  was  hard,  dry  and  unproductive. 

Coshocton. — A  company  was  formed  at  Coshocton  to  drill  to  the  Clin- 
ton limestone,  after  it  had  been  proved  to  be  petroliferous  by  the  ex- 
perience related  in  the  present  chapter.  No  different  section  was  expected 
from  that  found  at  the  points  mentioned.  The  company  took  advantage 
of  a  boring  begun  in  1886,  the  record  of  which  is  contained  in  Volume 
VI,  page  368.  The  nW  work  was  begun  at  1,280  feet  below  the  surface. 
In  this  well  the  Berea  grit  was  struck  at  about  860  feet.  The  great  shale 


246  GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO. 

series  underlying  it  was  found  1,600  feet  thick.  The  Devonian  limestone 
was  struck  at  2,513  feet.  The  only  important  fact  developed  by  this  drill- 
ing, so  far  as  known,  is  that  the  Lower  Helderberg  series  expands  in  this 
part  of  the  State  into  a  series  of  gypsiferous  shales  of  considerable  thick- 
ness. The  courage  of  the  company  gave  out  when  a  depth  of  3, ICO  feet 
had  been  reached.  The  last  drillings  were -in  the  shales  above  reported. 
The  Clinton  limestone,  to  which  the  drilling  was  all  directed,  still  lay  un- 
disturbed in  its  original  security,  several  hundred  feet  below  the  bottom 
of  the  well.  It  could  not  have  been  found  without  a  descent  of  at  least 
150  feet  lower  than  the  drill  had  reached.  The  most  probable  figure  for 
its  depth  would  be  3,300.  to  3,400  feet. 

Dresden. — A  well  was  also  sunk  at  Dresden  in  1889  that  would  not 
have  been  undertaken  but  for  the  success  of  Newark.  The  last  record  of 
this  well  was  obtained  from  a  reported  depth  of  2,525  feet.  The  drill 
showed  that  the  gypsiferous  shales  of  the  Water  liine  (Lower*Helderberg) 
series,  noted  in  the  preceding  paragraph,  had  been  reached  at  this  point. 

Plain  City. — During  1889,  two  deep  wells  were  drilled  at  Plain  City, 
the  encouragement  to  undertake  which  was  borrowed  from  the  successful 
wells  drilled  at  Lancaster. 

The  record  of  these  wells  is  as  follows : 

•No.  l.  No.  2. 

Drift 120  feet,  128  feet. 

Casing  set 521     "  535    " 

Ked  rock,  Medina  540  to r..    600    "  

Trenton  limestone 1,721  feet. 

Finished 1,530  feet*  2,000    " 

In  the  first  well  the  cable  broke  at  1,530  feet  and  the  tools  were  never 
recovered  from  the  well.  There  was,  of  course,  no  geological  promise  at 
at  any  time  in  drilling  in  this  locality.  The  region  had  been  tested  on 
all  sides,  and  a  monotonous  record  of  failures  in  all  the  horizons  of  gas 
•and  oil  now  known  had  been  obtained.  The  only  point  of  interest  de- 
veloped in  the  drilling  was  a  noble  flow  of  rock  water  from  a  depth  of  3505 
feet.  The  volume  of  the  stream  is  undoubtedly  large  enough  to  supply 
the  entire  village,  and  a  favorable  showing  as  to  the  quality  of  the  water 
would  be  expected  from  the  results  of  chemical  analysis.  The  Lancaster 
horizon  was  reached  in  the  Plain  City  well  at  about  500  feet,  but  the  limits 
of  depth,  as  fixed  by  the  company,  seem  to  have  been  determined  by  the 
fact  that  the  Lancaster  gas  was  found  at  about  2,000  feet  in  depth. 

Somerset. — Another  deep  well,  the  courage  to  undertake  which  must 
•have  been  borrowed  from  the  success  of  Lancaster  and  Newark,  was 
drilled  in  Somerset,  Perry  county,  during  the  latter  part  of  1889.  The 
record  of  this  well,  as  furnished  by  Professor  Patrick  Henry,  Superin- 
tendent of  Schools,  is  as  follows : 


THE    CLINTON    LIMESTONE.  247 

Drift 44  feet. 

Limestone  (Lower  Mercer?) 5    " 

Shale  and  sandstone  (Conglomerate Coal  Measures, 

Lbgan-Cuyahoga,  etc.) 927 

White  sand  (Berea  grit) 30         (Strong  salt  water.) 

Red  rock  (Bedford  shale) 30          (Cased  here.) 

Shales,  blue  and  black  (Ohio) 1,056 

Limestone  (Devonian  and  Upper  Silurian) 708 

Total 2,850    " 

Salt  water  was  struck  at  2,665  feet  in  so  strong  a  flow  that  it  could 
not  be  shut  off.  It  rises  to  within  400  feet  of  the  surface,  or  to  about  800 
feet  above  tide  level.  It  is  derived  from  the  Lower  Helderberg  series. 
Drilling  was  kept  up  under  this  heavy  column  of  water  for  several  hund- 
red feet,  but  the  progress  was  slow  and  discouragement  finally  overtook 
the  company  before  the  Clinton  goal  was  reached.  The  drill  must  have 
reached  to  within  300  feet  of  the  new  gas  rock  when  it  was  arrested. 


CHAPTER 


REMAINING  SOURCES  OF  OIL  AND  GAS  IN  OHIO. 

In  the  present  chapter  a  brief  review  will  be  attempted  of  the  most 
important  facts  that  have  been  accumulated  in  the  last  two  years  as  to 
the  production  of  petroleum  and  gas  from  the  remaining  rocks  of  the  Ohio 
scale.  The  several  strata  that  yield  these  products  will  be  taken  up  in 
the  geological  order  (ascending)  in  which  they  occur.  The  two  horizons 
that  have  been  already  treated  belong,  as  will  be  remembered,  to  the  lower 
portions  of  our  column. 

(I)     THE  OHIO  SHALE. 

This  great  stratum  must  not  be  omitted  in  this  review,, but  the  char- 
acter of  its  production  has  long  been  known,  and  but  little  of  special  value 
has  been  added  to  our  knowledge  of  it  during  the  interval  named  above. 
It  continues  to  furnish  low-pressure  gas  in  moderate  amount  for  house- 
hold use,  especially  along  the  shore  of  Lake  Erie,  from  Huron  River  to'the 
Pennsylvania  line.  New  wells  have  been  added  by  the  score  throughout 
this  region,  but  all  the  facts  of  production  remain  about  as  they  were. 
The  gas  reported  in  a  previous  chapter,  from  a  depth  of  900  feet,  at  Mt. 
Vernon,  is  derived  from  the  Ohio  shale.  The  pressure  which  it  accumu- 
lates when  the  well  is  shut  in,  viz.,  185  pounds,  is  exceptiocal  for  the  gas  of 
this  formation,  and  would  seem  to  indicate  a  water  pressure  in  the  shale 
as  its  source.  The  shale  is  generally  composed  of  impervious  beds,  but  it 
sometimes  happens  that  some  of  the  beds  are  hard  and  slaty  in  structure, 
and  are  broken  by  frequent  joints  to  such  an  extent  as  to  become  practi- 
cally porous.  The  Ohio  shale  formation  in  Kentucky,  for  example, 
possesses  this  character.  It  yields  gas  in  considerable  quantity,  and  it 
also  contains  below  and  behind  the  gas,  salt  water  in  large  amount.  The 
gas  is,  in  this  case,  really  held  under  a  salt  water  pressure,  as  in  ordinary 
reservoir  rocks,  but  as  the  wells  are  comparatively  shallow,  their  depth 
not  exceeding  400  feet,  their  pressure  does  not  rise  above  120  pounds  to 


THE    OHIO    SHALE.  249 

the  square  inch.  In  the  case  of  the  Mt.  Vernon  well,  the  presence  of 
a  water  column  may  also  be  inferred. 

Shale  gas  of  lower  pressure  is  found  to  be  the  most  persistent.  Such 
gas  is  certainly  not  driven  by  a  water  column.  The  moment  that  water 
pressure  is  brought  into  the  account,  a  limit  to  the  life  of  the  well  becomes 
apparent.  All  the  shale  gas  wells  that  serve  as  the  stock  examples  of  un- 
failing and  perpetual  supply  to  those  who  know  very  little  about  natural 
gas  and  yet  feel  called  upon  to  speak  and  write  upon  the  subject,  are  of 
very  small  volume  and  feeble  pressure.  The  famous  Fredonia  wells  of 
western  New  York  are  of  this  character.  A  -little  oil  is  also  occasionally 
found  in  the  shale  series.  The  largest  quantity  noted  of  late  comes  from 
just  outside  the  State  limits.  At  Erie,  Pennsylvania,  a  lubricating  oil  of 
fine  quality  (28°  B.  at  66°  F.)  is  afforded  in  quantity  large  enough  to  be 
offered  in  the  local  markets. 

But  in  the  large  way  the  great  formation  remains  what  it  was — a 
widespread  source  of  feeble  gas  wells,  which  apparently  do  not  depend 
upon  the  structural  arrangements  of  the  strata,  and  which  are  not  driven 
by  the  pressure  of  a  water  column. 

(II)     THE  BEREA  GRIT. 

This  famous  stratum  has  been  tested  during  the  last  two  years  very 
largely  throughout  southeastern  Ohio,  or,  more  strictly  speaking,  the  tests 
that  were  going  forward  two  years  ago  have  been  continued  »and  multi- 
plied since  that  date. 

The  unbroken  continuity  of  this  stratum  throughout  the  portion  of 
the  State  above  named  was  demonstrated  in  Volume  VI.  It  was  there 
traced  as  far  as  the  Ohio  River  in'  a  series  of  sections  that  he  who  runs 
could  read.  It  approached  our  southern  boundary  always  as  an  oil  rock 
or  a  gas  rock,  sometimes  of  great  value,  as,  for  example,  when  found  under 
the  designation  of  the  Macksburg  sand.  It  has  since  been  followed,  by 
fresh  developments,  into  West  Virginia  and  Pennsylvania,  and  by  the 
same  order  and  stratigraphical  relations  that  it  holds  in  all  Ohio  sections 
it  has  been  identified  in  these  States,  first  as  the  Murrysville  sand,  the 
great  gas  rock  of  the  Pennsylvania  scale,  and  second,  as  the  Gantz  sand, 
the  prolific  oil  and  gas  rock  of  Washington  and  Greene  counties,  and  of 
West  Virginia  as  well.  Prof.  I.  C.  White,  who  is  easily  our  highest  author- 
ity on  the  order  of  the  series  in  the  upper  Ohio  Valley,  counts  this  deter- 
mination well  established  at  last.  If  accepted,  it  does  a  great  deal  towards 
clearing  up  the  geology  of  the  oil  fields,  and  is  a  very  important  step  in 
unifying  the  somewhat  discordant  columns  of  Ohio  and  Pennsylvania. 

There  is  but  one  oil  field  yet  established  in  the  Berea  grit,  and  that  is 


250  GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO. 

the  Macksburg  field,  which  was  already  waning  fast  when  Volume  VI 
was  published.  It  still  maintains  a  small  production,  but  all  of  its  pres- 
ent importance  is  due  to  some  of  the  oil  rocks  of  the  Coal  Measures  that 
are  found  in  the  same  section  overlying  the  Berea  grit.  Many  attempts 
to  work  out  new  oil  fields  in  this  stratum  have  been  made,  and  some  at- 
tempts are  still  going  forward.  Generally  this  attempt  has  been  con- 
joined with  a  search  for  gas.  Both  lines  of  facts  can  be  best  treated, 
therefore,  under  a  single  head. 

(1)     THE  CADIZ  OIL  FIELD. 

A  large  amount  of  drilling  has  been  done  in  the  central  town- 
ships of  Harrison  county  during  the  last  three  years.  There  has  been 
just  enough  encouragement  in  the  wells  that  have  been  completed  to 
keep  up  the  interest  in  the  work.  The  series  traversed  by  the  drill  is 
regular;  the  oil  rock  is  in  its  place,  and  in  the  adjacent  districts  it  is,  or 
it  has  been,  the  basis  of  important  production.  The  structure  that  is 
known  to  be  indispensable  to  large  accumulation  has  been  demonstrated 
to  be  present,  and  last  of  all,  oil  and  gas  have  both  been  found  in  almost 
every  well  that  has  been  drilled — the  oil  of  a  quality  to  command  a 
premium  in  the  markets — and  in  a  few  cases  but  little  short  of  paying 
quantity,  and  the1  gas  in  volume  that  suggests,  if  it  does  not  warrant, 
utilization.  The  operators  in  the  field  have  been  men  of  experience,  and 
they  have,  counted  the  facts  as  developed  consistent  with  the  possibility 
of  important  production  close  at  hand,  and  they  have  been  loth  to  re- 
linquish the  search,  though  well  after  well,  up  to  a  dozen  'or  a  score  in 
number,  has  fallen  short  of  the  demands  from  the  stand-point  of  busi- 
ness success. 

The  history  of  the  work  that  is  going  forward  here  is  as  follows :  In 
1888  a  company  was  formed  in  Cadiz  to  test  the  territory  for"  gae,  the 
Artificial  Gas  Company  taking  an  important  interest  in  the  search.  Two 
or  three  wells  were  drilled  within  the  compass  of  a  few  miles  from  the 
court-house,  each  well  being  located  by  individual  caprice,  or  at  least 
without  any  well-considered  plan  of  operations  as  a  basis.  The  successive 
failures,  therefore,  proved  nothing  whatever  as  to  the  territory  taken  as  a 
whole,  except  that  these  wells  were  not  included  within  any  limits  of  pro- 
duction. The  series,  as  remarked  above,  was  found  regular.  The  Berea 
grit,  which  was  the  objective  point  in  all  the  wells,  generally  contained 
salt  water,  but  it  carried  also  a  showing  of  oil  or  gas. 

It  occurred  at  last  to  the  company  that  if  geology  could  throw  any 
light  on  these  problems  its  aid  should  be  sought.  It  had  long  been 
known  that  an  anticlinal  axis  of  more  or  less  force  traverses  the  rock 
series  of  Harrison  county  near  Cadiz,  but  in  the  work  thus  far  under- 


THE    BEREA.    GRIT.  251 

\ 

taken  no  reference  had  been  paid  to  it.  The  axis  was  found  easy  to 
define.  One  or  two  lines  of  east  and  west  sections  run  by  the  engineer's 
level,  the  great  Pittsburgh  coal  seam  being  used  as  the  geological  base, 
sufficed  to  establish  the  fact  that  a  well-marked  up-lift,  reversing  or  at 
least  interrupting  the  normal  southeasterly  dip  of  the  strata,  passes 
through  Cadiz  and  Green  townships,  the  center  of  the  arch  lying  about 
a  mile  east  of  the  court-house.  This  arch,  it  may  be  remarked,  can  be 
traced  for  a  long  distance,  It  is  recognizable  at  Quaker  City,  though  in 
very  feeble  force,  thirty  miles  to  the  southwest,  and  it  is  highly  probable 
that  it  is  the  same  axis  upon  which  the  Macksburg  field  depends.  To 
the  northward  there  is  a  slight  fold  recognizable  at  New  Salisbury  on 
Yellow  Creek,  which  is  probably  a  continuation  of  the  Cadiz  arch.  On 
the  basis  of  the  structure  thus  made  known,  it  was  easy  to  see  that  the 
records  of  failure  thus  far  were  just  what  should  have  been  expected,  the 
location  of  the  wells  not  only  giving  them  no  advantage  from  the  geologi- 
cal structure  but  positively  condemning  the  territory  on  which  they  were 
located. 

A  new  series  of  wells  was  forthwith  projected,  and  all  the  facts  devel- 
oped in  them,  have  borne  out  the  geological  inferences  as  to  this  structure. 
The  oil  rock  was  found  at  a  noticeably  higher  geographical  level,  and  it 
was  no  longer  overrun  with  salt  water.  If  it  yielded  but  a  small  quantity 
of  oil  or  gas,  in  any  case,  this  fact  could  be  accounted  for  by  the  physical 
condition  of  the  oil  rock  when  found.  Sometimes  it  proved  too  thin, 
and  sometimes  it  was  too  fine  grained  and  muddy  for  large  storage.  The 
geologist,  of  course,  undertakes  to  furnish  no  testimony  as  to  this  line  of 
facts.  His  labor  ends  when  he  shows  that  a  relief  suitable  and  indispen- 
sable to  petroliferous  accumulation  is  to  be  found  in  a  field  at  a  given 
locality.  The  quality  of  the  rock,  on  the  other  hand,  can  be  determined 
only  by  the  drill. 

About  a  dozen  wells  have  now  been  completed  under  the  new  dis- 
pensation. The  bulk  of  them  are  situated  in  the  contiguous  Sections,  28, 
Green  township;  27,  Short  Creek  township,  and  33  and  35,  Cadiz  town- 
ship. Nine  wells  have  been  drilled  here,  all  of  which  would  be  included 
in  a  circle  described  with  a  radius  of  one-half  or  three-quarters  of  a  mile. 
In  addition,  three  or  four  wells  have  been  distributed  through  the  same 
townships  so  as  to  indicate,  in  part,  -the  character  of  a  larger  area.  The 
best  results  have  been  obtained  in  the  first  group  of  wells.  The  geological 
section  of  the  wells  is  in  all  respects  normal.  They  are  all  likely  to  begin 
not  far  from  the  horizon  of  the  Pittsburgh  coal,  either  a  little  above  or  a 
little  below  it.  This  seam  is  a  universal  element  in  the  geological  scale  of 
the  county,  except  where  eroded  in  the  deeper  valleys.  The  red  clays  of 


252  GEOLCGY    OF    OHIO. 

the  barren  measures  are  passed  through  in  their  order,  and  the  Crinoidal 
limestone  generally  makes  its  mark  in  every  record.  The  only  other 
noteworthy  element  is  a  coal  seam  that  the  drillers  agree  in  counting  from 
five  to  six  feet  in  thickness,  that  is  found  at  a  depth  cf  5CO  to  550  feet. 
There  is  reason  to  believe  that  this  buried  seam  is  the  Upper  Freeport  or 
Cambridge  coal,  though  the  interval  is  somewhat  longer  than  would  be 
expected.  This  seam  has  been  struck  in  wells  at  least  dx  miles  distant 
from  each  other  in  an  east  and  west  line,  apd  has  been  recorded  in  most 
of  the  drillings.  Its  occurrence  is  a  matter  of  great  importance  in  the  re- 
sources of  the  county,  though  practical  account  will  not  be  made  of  it  for 
several  generations  yet.  But  it  is  worthy  of  distinct  record  that  such  a 
seam  exists  here  under  the  conditions  named.  A  seam  of  the  same  thick- 
ness and  at  the  same  approximate  depth,  and  doubtless  identical  with 
this  one,  is  reported  from  Quaker  City,  in  the  edge  of -Guernsey  county. 
Samples  of  the  coal  brought  up  from  the  Quaker  City  boring  were  sub- 
mitted to  chemical  analyses,  and  they  proved  the  coal  to  be  of  excellent 
quality.  It  may  therefore  be  set  down  as  one  of  the  most  valuable  results 
of  the  drilling  that  is  going  forward,  that  an  extensive  field  of  the  Cam- 
bridge coal,  with  its  normal  thickness  of  five  to  six  feet,  extends  through 
eastern  Guernsey,  presumably  through  western  Belmont  and  through 
central  Harrison  county,  at  a  depth  of  about  500  feet  below  the  Pittsburgh 
coal.  The  same  seam,  if  this  be  the  Upper  Freeport,  crops  out  to  the 
north  of  Harrison  county  and  is  there  known  as  the  Dell  Roy  or  Sherrods- 
ville  coal. 

When  the  Coal  Measures  and  the  Conglomerate  Coal  Measures  are 
passed  by  the  drill,  the  great  Waverly  conglomerate  or  Logan  group  is 
reached  by  it.  This  stratum  is  now  known  in  Pennsylvania  and  West 
Virginia  as  the  "  Big  Indian"  sand  rock.  Under  this  stratum  is  the  well- 
marked  Cuyahoga  shale,  darkening  in  its  lower  portion  into  the  equally 
distinct  Berea  shale  that  is  here  found  thirty  feet  thick,  under  which,  at 
a  depth  below  the  surface  varying  from  1.325  to  1,400  feet  (the  depth  de- 
pending upon  the  accidents  of  the  surface)  is  found  that  wonderfully 
steady  and  widely  extended  stratum,  the  Berea  grit,  the  possible  contents 
of  which  constitute  the  object  toward  which  all  this  outlay  is  directed. 

The  wells  are  cased  with  regular  casing  to  a  depth  of  400  feet,  and 
smaller  casing  extends  to  about  1,050  feet,  resting  just  within  the  limits 
of  the  Cuyahoga  shale. 

The  Holliday  well,  located  in  the  southwest  corner  of  Section  28, 
Green  township,  gives  as  good  promise  as  any  of  the  wells  have  given. 
When  first  drilled  the  oil  rose  in  it  400  feet  in  a  single  night.  An  attempt 
was  afterwards  made  to  torpedo  the  oil  rock,  but  the  shell  exploded  pre- 
maturely in  the  casing  and  allowed  the  wtaer  from  Jbhe  Logan  sandstone 


THE    BEREA.    GRIT.  253. 

to  find  its  way  downward.  This  difficulty  has  not  been  entirely  remedied, 
but  the  well  is  now  flowing  about  five  barrels  of  oil  per  day.  The  gravity 
of  the  oil  is  47°  B.  It  is  sold  at  a  premium  of  fifty  cehts.  A  part  of  the 
oil  of  the  field  is  even  lighter  in  gravity  than  this,  reaching  51°  B.,  but 
another  part  is  considerably  heavier,  falling  as  low  as  41°  B.  The  Boden 
well  in  Section  26,  Short  Ore ^k  township,  and  the  Morgan  well,  Section 
33,  Cadiz  township,  both  give  fair  promise  as  oil  wells  The  pay- streak 
in  the  latter  is  reported  to  b.e  fifteen  feet  thick,  but  the  sand  is  fine  and 
muddy.  The  well  was  producing,  when  last  reported,  from  two  to  three 
barrels  per  day 

Of  the  gas  wells  the  Mitchell  well,  near  the  center  of  Section  33,  Cadiz, 
and  the  Fryer  well,  southeast  quarter  of  northeast  quarter  Section  35,, 
Cadiz  township,  have  given  the  best  promise  until  recently.  Within  the 
last  few  weeks  a  well  has  been  drilled  on  the  Walter  Craig  farm  that  shows 
much  greater  valu^,  as  a  gas  well,  thaj|  any  that  has  preceded  it.  It  is 
located  near  the  middle  of  Section  28,  Green  township.  It  is  estimated 
by  good  judges  to  yield  1,000,000*  fc  it  per  day.  The  town  will  forthwith 
be  piped  for  the  introduction  of  gas  as  fuel,  and  a  good  deal  more  drilling 
will  be  carried  forward,  though  the  inferior  character  of  the  sand  is 
acknowledged  by  all. 

How  shall  the  character  of  the  Cadiz  field  be  summed  up?  It  is 
obvious  that  it  has  not  fulfilled  the  expectations  of  the  experienced 
operators  that  have  been  testing  it.  Money  has  been  freely  spt-nt  upon 
it,  but  so  far»it  has  been  like  water  poured  upon  the  ground,  the  prin- 
cipal exception  being  f  »und  in  the  Craig  well  last  named.  If  a  tract  has 
been  discovered  that  will  furnish  gas  to  the  village  of  Cadiz  for  a  few 
years,  this  will  redeem  the  entire  district  Jrom  the  charge  of  barrenness 
and  failure.  It  goes  hard  to  give  up  so  good  promise  as  the  field  has 
shown  without  sonde  adequate  return. 

The  following  companies  have  been  at  work  within  the  general  limits 
of  the  territory  above  described,  viz.':  The  Cadiz  Oil  &  pas  Company, 
The  Bjrria  Grit  Oil  Company,  Tne  SUndard  Oil  Company,  Joseph  Post, 
Clark  &  McCormick,  F.  E.  Boden,  Galbraith  &  Watson,  Brainard  & 
Company. 

A  deep  well  recently  drilled  one  and  a  half  miles  northeast  of  Flush- 
ing, in  Belmont  county,  gives  the  following  record.  It  was  begun  at  the 
level  of  the  Meigs  Creek  coal.  The  Pittsburgh  seam  was  struck  at  ninety- 
seven  feet,  sixty  feet  of  limestone  being  passed  through  in  the  interval. 
At  595  feet  a  coal  seam,  seven  feet  thick  is  reported,  another  seam,  four  to 
five  feet  thick,  is  reported  at  700  feet,  and  still  a  third  seam,  three  to  four 
feet  thick,  at  815.  Salt  water  was  struck  at  900  feet.  The  great  Waverly 
or  Logan  sandstone  fills  the  interval  between  1,015  and  1,250  feet  with 


254  GEOLOGY     OF    OHIO. 

unbroken  salt  water  rock.  The  Berea  grit  was  reached  at  1,635  feet.  The 
uppermost  fifteen  feet  are  soft  and  dark,  followed  by  thirty  feet  of  soft 
white  sand.  The  salt  water  ross  in  the  well  700  feet  in  eight  hours. 
The  occurrence  of  the  coal  seams  is  the  feature  of  interest  in  this  record. 
The  Upper  Freeporfc  seam,  previously  referred  to,  is  shown  here  in  full 
value.  The  next  seam  below  is  probably  one  of  the  Kittanning  coals. 

(2)     THE  BARNESVILLE  GAS  FIELD. 

The  search  that  Barnesville  has  carried  on  in  the  underlying  rocks 
during  the  last  two  years  has  had  but  a  single  object,  viz.,  a  supply  of  gas 
for  the  use  of  its  citizens  and  for  the  glass  factory  which  is  established  here. 
The  beginning  ot  this  investigation  was  made  by  the  village  corporation 
at  the  public  expense.  Authority  was  obtained  from  the  Legislature  to 
expend  $5,000  in  this  way.  The  trial  well  was  located  within  or  near  the 
corporation  limits  and  was  drilled  to  a  depth  of  2,700  feet.  The  Berea 
grit  was  struck  at  a  depth  of  about  1,600  'eet,  and  a  little  oil  and  consider- 
able salt  water  were  found  in  it. ,  This  Avork  was  done  in  1888.  Not  dis- 
couraged by  the  failure  a  company  of  citizens  was  then  forme i  to  con- 
tinue the  search.  Two  more  wells  were  sunk,  but  only  to  the  Berea  grit, 
but  they  made  no  great  imp'rovement  on  the  record  of  well  No.  1,  but  a 
little  encouragement  was  found  in  each  in  the  small  production  of  oil  and 
in  the  other  evidences  of  continuity  and  porosity  of  .the  Berea  grit.  It 
was  then  decided  to  call  in  geological  advice  as  to  the  location  of  further 
trial  wells.  Mr.  F.  W.  Minshall,  of  Marietta,  made  an  examination  of 
the  territory  for  the  company  and  found  a  feeble  axis  to  the  northwest  of 
the  village.  The  first  well  drilled  under  the  new  guidance  made  an 
agreeable  change  in  the  record  that  had  been  thus  far  maintained.  A 
considerable  flow  of  gas  was  secured.  The  volume  was  reported  at 
750,000  cubic  feet  per  day,  and  the  lock  pressure  proved  to  be  640  pounds, 
and  although  a  little  oil  and  salt  water  were  produced  with  the  gas,  it 
was  evident  that  there  was  far  more  to  encourage  in  the  new  location 
than  had  been  found  in  the  previous  wells.  A  second  well  was  therefore 
located  1,600  feet  to  the  northeast  of  No.  1,  which  yielded  dry  gas  of  the 
same  rock  pressure,  and  of  approximately  the  same  volume  as  No.  1. 
Both  of  tbem  are  located  on  the  Parker  iarm,  and  they  are  distant  about' 
one  mile  from  the  corporation  line.  They  were  drilled  during  the. sum- 
mer of  issy. 

Measured  for  the  company  in  June,  1890,  the  volume  of  wt-11  No.  1  AY  as 
found  to  be  approximately  300,000  feet  per  day.  The  salt  water  and  oil 
have  been  gaining  upon  the  gas  apparently  in  the  interval  since  it  was 
drilled.  Well  No.  2  was  in  better  condition.  Its  gas  is  dry  and  its  daily 


THE    BEREA    GRIT.  255 

volume  is  500,000  feet.  The  company  has  leased  1,800  acres  of  land 
thought  to  be  most  favorably  situated  with  reference  to  gas  production, 
and  has  also  secured  the  right  to  pipe  the  tbwn  for  fuel  supply.  The 
amount  of  gas  already  found  would  be  of  great  service  if  brought  to  the 
village  and  applied  to  domestic  use,  but  it  would  not  meet  the  demand  of 
a  glass  factory  if  the  whole  of  it  were  to  be  applied  to  this  purpose.  If  a 
few  more  wells  as  good  as  the  last  were  drilled,  it  would  give  an  appar- 
ently safe  basis  for  the  domestic  supply  of  the  town  for  a  few  years  at 
least. 

A  few  wells  have  been  drilled  in  other  portions  of  Belmont  county 
during  the  last  two  years,  and  favorable  accounts  are  current  as  to  the 
gas  production  of  some  of  them,  but  authentic  data  have  not  been  secured 
in  regard  to  them  for  the  present  report.  • 

(3)     THE  CAMBRIDGE  GAS  FIELD. 

The  persistent  and  costly  search  for  gas  on  the  line  of  the  Cambridge 
arch,  that  was  recorded  in  Volume  VI,  has  been  carried  on  still  further 
since  the  date  of  the  publication  of  the  report  named  above.  A  half 
dozen  wells  carefully  located  with  reference  to  the  arch,  by  the  aid  of  geo- 
logical and  engineering  work,  were  drilled  during  1888,  in  Liberty 
township  to  the  east  of  Kirnbolton,  where  a  well  reported  on  page  381  of 
Volume  VI  had  been  already  drilled,  the  promise  of  which  had  been  con- 
siderably better  than  that  of  any  previous  trial  in  this  vicinity.  Four 
wells  were  drilled  here  about  500  feet  apart,  on  an  east  and  west  line 
designed'  to  cover  the  top  of  the  arch.  The  outcome  justified  to  ^con- 
siderable extent  the  geological  prevision.  Gas  was  found  in  all  of  them 
and  in  two  of  them  in  considerable  volume ;  but  no  measurement  of  the 
wells  were  made,  or  at  least  none  were  made  public.  The  wells  showed  a 
good  rock  pressure.  At  this  stage  eastern  capital  was  brought  in,  the  rep- 
resentatives of  which  had  no  previous  acquaintance  with  the  business  of 
oil  and  gas  production.  The  company  formed  is  known  as  the  South- 
eastern Ohio  Gas  and  Fuel  Company,  and  under  this  there  are  several 
subordinate  companies.  The  investors  supposed  themselves  in  possession 
of  a  stock  of  gas  ample  for  the  domestic  supply  of  Cambridge,  distant 
about  ten  miles  from  the  wells,  and  also  sufficient  for  the  largest  manu- 
facturing plant  that  could  be  established  here,  as,  for  example,  a  large  rolling 
mill.  The  plans  of  the  new  company  contemplated  also  the  supply  of 
Zanesville  at  an  early  day  from  the  same  field.  A  ten-inch  line,  five  or 
six  miles  in  length,  was  laid  to  serve  as  a  common  stem  from  the  wells  for 
both  cities,  and  from  it  a  similar  line  was  carried  into  Cambridge.  The  gas 
was  brought  to  the  town  in  1888,  permission  to  pipe  the  town  having  been 
previously  secured,  but  the  franchise  did  not  give  the  company  exclusive 


256  GEOLOGY     OF     OHIO. 

right  in  these  respects.  A  few  hundred  stoves  were  taken  on,  but  the  sup- 
ply proved  very  irregular  and  unsatisfactory.  Various  explanations  of 
the  failure  were  offered.  The  real  cause  was  undoubtedly  an  insufficient 
amount  of  gas. 

The  wells  were  measured  for  the  first  time  for  the  company  in  Sep- 
tember, 1889,  and  their  condition  was  found  unpromising.  Wells  Nos.  1 
and  3  together  yielded  about  one  and  a  quafter  million  cubic  feet  of  gas 
per  day  at  the  well  heads,  but  both  were  badly  overrun  with  salt  water. 
Well  No.  2  produced  about  70,000  feet  per  day  and  it  was  a  wet  well  also. 
Wells  Nos.  4  and  5  were  found  too  feeble  to  be  measured  even  by  the  ane- 
mometer. The  larger  wells  had  been  neglected  for  some  time  previous  to 
the  measurement  and  this  condition  was  afterwards  considerably  improved 
by  proper  care,  but  their  real  character  appears  in  the  statements  made 
above.  The  results  of  these  measurements  were  a  great  surprise  and  dis- 
appointment to  the  eastern  investors,  but  in  order  to  keep  the  plant  from 
becoming  an  entire  failure,  other  wells  are  to  be  drilled  in  the  hope  of 
obtaining  a  larger  supply.  The  company  holds  an  extensive  acreage  under 
lease  .which  it  does  not  cost  great  outlay  to  maintain.  I  ts  investments  have 
exceeded  $100,000.  The  rates  in  force  at  Cambridge  are  the  following : 

Cooking  stoves,  per  annum $15  00 

First  grate,              '•       "     10  00 

Second  grate,            "       "     800 

Additional  grates,   "       '•     600 

Heating  stoves         "       'i     1600 

Additional  heating  stove's,  per  annum 5  00 

Por  large  rooms,  500  feet  floor  space 16  00 

For  each  additional  100  feet 1  00 

A  home  company  was  also  formed  in  1888  in  Cambridge  to  supply 
fuel  to  the  town.  It  secured  its  territory  within  a  mile  or  two  of  the  cor- 
poration. It  has  drilled  a  half  dozen  wells,  has  laid  a  four-inch  line  from 
the  wells  to  the  town,  and  has  laid  its  distributing  service  through  a  por- 
tion of  the  corporate .  limits.  Its  wells  are  none  of  them  large,  though 
some  of  them  are  understood  to  have  attained  a  production  of  several 
hundred  thousand  feet  a  day.  Salt  water  is  yielded  with  the  gas  in  all 
the  wells,  but  it  does  not  prove  immediately  fatal  to  their  production. 
This  peculiarity  of  the  Berea  grit  gas  was  noticed  in  the  account  given  in 
Volume  VI  of  the  JNefF  wells,  page  339.  The  salt  water,  if  promptly 
removed  from  the  wells,  does  not  shut  off  the  gas.  In  some  fields,  on  the 
other  hand,  it  comes  with  a,n  overpowering  force  and  takes  exclusive  occu- 
pation of  the  rock  for  all  time  to  come.  The  company  does  not  connect 
any  larger  number  of  stoves  with  its  lines  than  it  can  fully  supply,. 
Between'  the  two  companies,  Cambridge  is  enjoying  the  inexpressibles 
convenience  that  comes  from  the  use  of  natural  gas  as  domestic  fuel. 


THE    BEREA   GRIT.  257 

As  to  the  prospects  of  the  Cambridge  field,  the  comments  in  Volume 
VI  upon  its  character  can  be  repeated  with  renewed  emphasis  in  the  light 
of  all  subsequent  history.  The  arch,  where  it  has  been  struck,  is  too  flat 
to  give  proper  relief  for  the  separation  of  gas  and  oil  from  water.  A  few 
additional  feet  of  elevation  at  any  point  would  change  this  record,  and 
it  is  by  no  means  impossible  that  some  happier  location  will  at  last  be 
struck. 

(4)  THE  OHIO  VALLEY. 

While  there  has  been  a  great  deal  of  activity  in  this  district,  there  is 
but  little  substantial  progress  to  be  reported.  Exploration  has  been  going 
on  uninterruptedly  in  one  or  another  portion  of  Washington,  Noble, 
Belmont,  and  Jefferson  counties  during  the  last  two  years.  On  the  south 
side  of  the  river,  some  valuable  oil  territory  has  been  brought  to  light, 
and  this  discovery  makes  the  driller  more  than  ever  certain  that  the 
region  above  named  will  somewhere  be  found  to  afford  new  oil  fields 
that  will  repay  the  search  for  them. 

The  most  important  facts  that  can  be  stated  in  this  connection  are 
the  following,  derived  from  a  recent  number  of  the  American  Manufacturer. 
The  facts  do  not  pertain  to  the  productiveness  of  the  oil  rock,  but  rather 
to  a  new  method  of  distributing  the  profits  arising  from. an  oil  field  when 
one  is  discovered.  It  is  greatly  to  be  regretted  that  the  method  was  not 
invented  many  years  ago,  for  it  would  certainly  have  resulted  in  a  vastly 
more  equitable  and  healthful  distribution  of  the  enormous  profits  that 
have  accrued  from  oil  production.  It  is  hereby  most  cordially  com- 
mended to  the  farmers  and  land  owners  of  the  state.  For  the  origination 
of  the  method  we  are  indebted,  it  is  said,  to  the  Farmers'  Alliance. 

It  appears  that  a  representative  of  one  of  the  Wheeling  oil  companies 
lately  found  reason  to  believe  that  the  Eureka  field  extended  across  the 
Ohio  river,  in  a  direction  in  which  no  tests  had  been  made.  The  com- 
pany decided  to  lease  some  land  within  the  lines  as  indicated.  The  first 
farmer  to  whom  they  applied  expressed  his  willingness  to  lease  his  farm 
of  200  acres.  "  A  lease1  was  accordingly  made  out  by  the  company  in  the 
ordinary  form,  allowing  the  land  owner  his  eighth  royalty,  and  agreeing 
to  put  a  well  down  in  a  certain  time.  When  the  lease  was  brought  back 
for  the  farmer  to  sign,  he  flatly  refused.  When  asked  why,  he  drew 
on  them  a  lease  of  his  own,  printed  and  filled  out  with  the  company's 
name,  and  ready  for  the  signatures.  It  provided  for  the  leasing  of  the 
farm  in  tracts  of  fifty  acres  each,  and  gave  the  farmer  control  of  ten  acres 
of  each  fifty.  It  further  provided  that  the  ten  acres  might  be  drilled 
into  by  the  farm  owner,  or  any  one  to  whom  he  might  lease  that  portion 

17        G. 


258  GEOLOGY   OF    OHIO. 

of  the  tract,  at  any  time  either  before  or  after  the  holders  of  the  lease  on 
the  other  part  of  the  tract  had  commenced  development.  This  was  a 
surprise  for  the  representatives  of  the  oil  company,  they  having  been 
accustomed  to  the  land  owner  taking  almost  any  thing  offered.  The 
farmer's  proviso  gave  him  the  power  to  hold  a  share  of  the  production 
of  his  land  from  the  company,  and  in  such  shape  that,  no  matter  where 
the  leasers  might  strike  oil,  he  would  have  at  least  ten  acres  in  the  im- 
mediate vicinity,  which  he  could  drill  upon  himself,  or  re-lease,  or  sell  at 
the  price  which  the  leasers'  development  might  place  upon  it.  The  lease 
was  not  signed  at  once,  but  the  leasers  found  that  all  the  farmers  in  the 
township  had  leases  of  the  same  style,  and  that  the  land  could  not  be 
secured  on  any  other  terms." 


CH^AJPTEH  VI. 


THE  UTILIZATION  OF  NATURAL  GAS  IN  OHIO. 

In  the  preceding  chapters  it  has  been  shown  that  a  few  favored  dis- 
tricts of  the  State  have  obtained  large  supplies  of  natural  gas  during  the 
last  few  years,  and  the  uses  which  the  people  of  these  districts  are  making 
of  the  new  source  of  heat  have  been  incidentally  mentioned  in  many 
varying  connections.  The  latter  subject  is,  however,  so  important  that  it 
seems  to  deserve  a  more  distinct  and  detailed  treatment  than  it  has  thus 
far  received.  The  present  chapter  will  accordingly  be  devoted  to  a  de- 
scription of  the  various  uses  to  which  natural  gas  is  now  applied  in  Ohio, 
and  such  data  as  have  been  accumulated  as  to  the  amounts  of  gas  con- 
sumed in  the  several  applications  will  here  find  place. 

USES  OF  NATURAL  GAS. 

For  the  sake  of  convenience  the  uses  of  gas  in  Ohio  will  be  con- 
sidered under  the  following  main  heads  and  subdivisions  : 


I.     Domestic  fuel. 


(1)  Cooking  stoves,  ranges,  etc. 

(2)  Heating  stoves,  furnaces,  grates,  etc. 

f    (1)     Power.  f 

(a) 


II.     Fuel  for  manufacturers.  "I    (2)     Fuel  proper. -{ 


I 


Glass  manufacture — window, 

bottle,  table  ware. 
(6)     Iron   working,  rolling  mills, 
nail  works,  wire  mills,  etc. 
(c)     Clay  working,  potteries,brick, 
pressed     brick,     common 
brick,  tile  manufacturing. 
I.    (d)     Lime  burning. 


I.  Domestic  Fuel. — This  is  by  far  the  most  important  use  of  natural 
gas,  if  measured  on  the  scale  of  general  service.  It  contributes  to  the 
comfort  and  convenience  of  a  much  greater  number  of  people  in  this  than 
in  any  other  line  of  use.  The  service  that  it  renders  it  is  hard  to  exaggerate. 
It  effects  an  immense  saving  in  the  never-ending  labors  of  house-keeping. 
To  the  communities  that  have  found  access  to  it,  it  has  not  only  rendered 
great  practical  service  already,  but  it  has  given  to  them  a  lesson  that  is  of 
even  greater  value  than  this  practical  service.  It  has  demonstrated  the 


26O  GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO. 

advantage  of  gaseous  fuel  and  has  inclined  all  who  have  become  ac- 
quainted with  these  advantages  so  strongly  to  its  use  that  they  will  never 
willingly  go  back  to  the  grosser  forms  of  stored  heat.  Whatever  brings 
the  world  forward  towards  this  result  is  rendering  a  most  important  service. 
Considerable  outlays  are  required  before  the  gas  can  be  made  available 
as  fuel  to  the  people  of  a  city  or  village.  Not  only  must  gas  territory  be 
secured  and  wells  be  drilled,  but  a  pipe  line  must  convey  the  gas  from  the 
wells  to  the  city,  and  when  the  latter  is  reached  a  costly  net-work  of  pipes 
of  various  sizes  must  be  laid  to  provide  for  its  proper  distribution.  When 
the  gas  fields  are  a  score  or  more  miles  distant  from  the  point  where  the 
gas  is  to  be  used,  and  where  a  considerable  supply  has  to  be  provided,  the 
cost  of  the  pipe  line  rises  to  large  figures.  The  pipe  for  such  service  must 
be  eight,  ten  or  twelve  inches  in  diameter,  and  the  cost,  therefore,  runs  up 
to  many  thousands  of  dollars  per  mile. 

As  a  consequence  it  is  as  a  rule  only'  large  aggregations  of  capital  that 
undertake  this  work.  Capitalists  look  on  the  supply  of  gas  to  towns  as 
they  do  on  other  modes  of  gaining  mineral  wealth.  There  is  a  consider- 
able element  of  risk  involved,  but  when  successful  the  returns  may  be 
extraordinarily  large.  The  companies  that  have  taken  hold  of  this  work 
throughout  the  country  are  for  the  most  part  those  who  have  gained  their 
wealth  by  successful  operations  in  oil,  and  they  consequently  bring  to  the 
business  the  training  that  comes  from  the  largest  attainable  practical 
knowledge  in  regard  to  it. 

But  before  the  supply  of  the  city  can  be  undertaken,  the  right  to 
furnish  a  supply,  including  the  privilege  of  using  the  streets  and  alleys 
for  the  purpose,  must  be  obtained  from  the  people  through  the  municipal 
authorities.  This  gives  to  the  City  Council  an  opportunity  to  fix  the 
rates  that  are  to  be  charged  for  gas,  or  at  least  to  fix  the  maximum  rates 
that  may  be  charged.  Under  the  circumstances,  it  is  eminently  proper 
that  this  right  should  be  exercised,  for,  as  a  rule,  competition  in  the 
supply  is  impossible,  and  it  Avould  be  wholly  unwarrantable  to  leave  so 
large  public  interests  as  these  at  the  mercy  of  corporations  organized  solely 
'  with  reference  to  large  returns  for  their  investments.  If,  for  example,  a 
town,  after  enjoying  the  luxury  of  gaseous  fuel,  should  be  required  to 
make  choice  between  going  back  to  coal  and  paying  twice  the  price  of  coal 
for  gas,  all  who  could  possibly  afford  it  would  choose  the  latter  alternative. 
But  it  is  evident  that  even  if  the  same  price  is  paid  for  gas  that  'the  coal 
which  it  displaces  would  cost,  the  business  of  furnishing  it  becomes,  under 
favorable  circumstances,  enormously  profitable.  The  consideration  of 
questions  of  this  character  by  the  people  and  their  representatives  in  the 
mun  icipal  governments,  especially  in  localities  where  the  supply  of  gas  is 
found  close  at  hand,  naturally  led  to  projects  of  furnishing  fuel  to  such 


UTILIZATION    OF   GAS.  26 1 

towns  through  the  agency  of  the  municipal  government.  Findlay  led 
the  way  in  this  direction.  The  history  of  the  steps  by  which  the  result 
was  finally  accomplished  is  given  at  some  length  in  Volume  VI.  Bowl- 
ing Green,  Fostoria,  Upper  Sandusky,  North  Baltimore,  Greenville,  Lan- 
caster, Tiffin,  Toledo,  Ottawa,  and  a  number  of  smaller  towns  have  followed 
along  the  same  general  line,  although  not  in  all  cases  undertaking  to 
supply  domestic  fuel  to  the  towns.  The  chief  interest  of  many,  and  the 
exclusive  interest  of  some,  in  fact,  has  been  to  furnish  fuel  to  manufact- 
urers, and  the  work  in  this  connection  will  be  treated  under  a  separate 
head.  Where  household  fuel  has  been  included,  the  rates  have  been  in 
all  cases  made  moderate,  averaging  not  more  than  twelve  to  fifteen  dollars 
per  year  for  a  single  fire. 

Entering  without  experience  on  this  line  of  work,  however,  and  even 
selected  for  it  sometimes  on  account  of  their  sanguine  views  and  hopeful 
theories  ag  to  the  nature  of  the  gas  supply,  the  municipal  corporations  or 
gas  boards  have  had  a  great  deal  to  learn.  Frequently,  by  the  time  that 
a  member  has  acquired  better  knowledge  of  the  work  that  he  has  in  hand,  he 
is  displaced  either  for  what  the  board  may  have  done  or  failed  to  do  in 
this  connection,  and  a  new  man  takes  his  place,  and  gains  in  like  manner 
his  practical  education  at  the  public  expense.  The  faults  to  be  expected 
in  such  an  administration  have  been  realized  in  most  of  the  municipal 
gas  plants.  These  faults  are  failure  to  secure  adequate  territory,  improper 
construction  of  the  lines,  irregular  and  defective  supply,  and,  worse  than 
all,  great  wastefulness  of  fuel.  The  discovery  of  a  store  of  fuel  and  power 
of  this  character  was  so  surprising  and  unexpected  that  it  is  no  wonder 
that  to  those  who  were  so  favored,  it  seemed  for  awhile  that  it  had  "come 
to  stay,"  to  use  the  current  phrase  in  regard  to  gas.  And  then,  too,  such 
wanton  waste  was  in  progress  on  every  side  that  any  nice  regard  for  econ- 
omy seemed  as  foolish  as  it  was  futile. 

This  state  of  things  is  passing  away  in  the  older  centers,  and  the 
warnings  that  the  supply  of  this  precious  stock  of  heat  and  power  is 
limited  are  so  plain  that  no  one  can  any  longer  fail  to  recognize  them. 
The  system  by  which  gas  has  been  introduced  as  fuel  into  Ohio  towns  by 
both  public  and  private  corporations,  has  unfortunately  had  some  vicious 
features,  in  some  respects,  from  the  beginning.  The  consumer  is  charged 
not  for  the  amount  of  gas  he  uses,  but  in  a  general  way  for  the  amount 
that  he  is  able  to  use  by  the  service  with  which  the  company  supplies  him. 
The  gas  metersjin  use  at  the  beginning  of  this  experience  were  not  adapted 
to  the  natural  supply,  and  their  expense  stood  in  the  way  of  their  adop- 
tion at  first.  Cha,rges  were  therefore  based  by  the  companies  upon  the 
size  of  the  burners  which  they  supplied  to  individual  consumers  These 
burners  are  technically  known  as  mixers.  The  openings  by  which  the  gas 


262  GEOLOGY   OF    OHIO. 

escapes  are  measured  in  given  fractions  of  an  inch.  The  mixers  in  com- 
mon use  are  known  as  numbers  3,  5  and  7.  The  diameter  of  the  aperture 
in  number  3  is  three  thirty-seconds ;  in  number  5,  four  thirty-seconds ; 
and  in  number  7,  five  thirty -seconds  of  an  inch.  The  amount  of  gas  that 
passes  through  these  mixers  depends  upon  the  pressure  which  is  maintained 
upon  it.  Under  a  pressure  of  four  ounces,  according  to  an  experimental 
test  made  by  a  careful  observer,  by  means  of  a  gas  meter,  a  number  3 
mixer  passes  thirty-two  feet,  and  a  number  5  mixer,  forty-eight  feet  per 
hour.  These  figures  are  not  exactly  in  the  proportions  to  be  expected 
from  the  relative  sizes  of  the  pipes ;  there  should  be  a  greater  disparity 
between  them.  According  to  another  experiment,  under  a  nine-ounce 
pressure,  a  number  3  mixer  consumes  forty-eight  feet  per  hour,  and  a 
number  5  mixer,  eighty-five  feet  per  hour.  The  latter  measurements  are 
properly  proportioned  to  each  other,  in  any  case. 

The  range  of  pressure  in  natural  gas  lines  is  often  considerable.  Most 
lines  aim  to  secure  a  pressure  of  four  ounces  for  domestic  service.  None 
would  willingly  exceed  eight  ounces  for  this  use,  but  through  defective 
management  ten  and  even  twelve  ounces  are  sometimes  reached  in  the 
distributing  pipes. 

(1)  In  the  mixer,  which  is  in  by  far  the  largest  use,  viz.,  No.  5,  it  is 
certain  that  at  least  fifty  feet  per  hour  will  be  consumed  under  any  of  the 
pressures  likely  to  be  found  in  the  lines.     Counting  fifteen  hours  a  day  as 
the  probable  limit  lor  the  largest  use,  viz.,  in  cook  stoves,  in  the  winter 
months,  it  is  seen  that  at  least  750  feet  must  be  taken  as  necessary  for  the 
demands  of  each  etove.     At  this  rate  a  cook  stove  will  use  in  one  month 
22,500  feet.     At  four  and  a  half  cents  per  1,000  feet  this  amount  would 
cost  $1.01.     At  nine  cents  per  1,000  feet  it  would  cost  $2.02.    The  figures 
given,  viz  ,  $1.00  to  $2.00  per  month,  practically  cover  the  entire  range  of 
the  prices  at  present  charged  for  the  gas  applied  to  domestic  use  in  its 
most  important  application,  viz ,  the  cook  stove.     And  thus  it  appears 
that  such  fuel  is  paid  for  in  the  State  at  rates  ranging  from  four  and  a 
half  to  nine  cents  per  month  for  the  largest  possible  supply.     The  actual 
supply  must  be  considerably  less  than  this,  and  by  this  means  the  price 
realized  from  the  gas  is  greater  than  that  given.     The  amount  named 
above  can  not  be  far  from  being  the  equivalent  of  a  ton  of  coal,  and  the 
price  of  gas  can  be  accordingly  estimated  on  this  basis.     The  rates  for 
summer  use  are  in  most  of  the  cities  and  towns  reduced  below  the  figures 
given  above. 

(2)  For  heating  stoves  it  is  not  as  easy  to  make  calculation  on  the  price 
realized  for  the  gas,  because  of  the  fact  that  when  more  than  a  single  grate 
or  heater  is  employed,  discounts,  varying  in  amount,  are  allowed  accord- 
ing to  the  number.    There  are  also  differences  in  price  for  the  different 


UTILIZATION   OF    GAS.  263 

seasons  of  the  year.  Some  companies  make  no  charge  for  five  months  of 
the  year  for  heating  purposes,  and  others  reduce  the  rate  of  the  winter 
months  by  giving  an  annual  rate  that  is  half  the  maximum  for  the  par- 
ticular mixer  employed.  The  latter  is  the  usage  of  the  great  companies. 

For  the  gas  used  in  heating  it  is  probable  that  a  considerably  higher 
rate  is  realized  than  for  that  used  in  cook  stoves.  If  this  is  true,  it  is  as 
it  should  be,  for  the  advantage  of  the  lower  rates  comes  to  those  least 
able  to  pay  for  gas  as  a  luxury. 

This  whole  system  of  disposing  of  gas  has  already  been  characterized 
as  a  vicious  one.  The  objection  to  it  lies  in  this  fact,  viz.,  that  the  con- 
sumer is  under  no  adequate  motive  to  economy.  He  is  in  danger  of  even 
making  himself  uncomfortable  by  overheating  his  house  in  the  endeavor 
to  get  the  worth  of  his  money.  The  current  complaints  as  to  the  extraor- 
dinary heating  power  of  natural  gas  have  their  root  in  this  system.  If 
illuminating  gas  were  supplied  at  a  certain  price  for  a  jet  of  specified 
size,  as  natural  gas  is  supplied  at  a  certain  price  for  a  mixer,  every  city 
would  forthwith  take  on  a  brilliancy  at  night  never  known  before.  There 
would  be  continuous  illumination  such  as  we  now  see  only  on  festal 
occasions.  There  is  no  more  need  of  warping  and  racking  a  house 
through  the  effect  of  extreme  heat  by  natural  gas  than  by  any  other  fuel. 
But  the  fact  of  its  steadiness  is  made  to  contribute  easily  to  this  result. 
It  can  be  maintained,  day  in  and  day  out,  without  abatement,  and  it  is 
this  fact  that  mainly  leads  to  overheating.  There  is,  however,  a  common 
defect  in  its  introduction  into  dwellings  that  helps  to  bring  about  the 
same  result.  Flues  are  unduly  constricted  when  gas  is  brought  in,  and 
the  heated  products  of  combustion  occur  to  a  very  unhealthful  amount 
in  the  room. 

The  whole  system  of  burning  gas  is,  however,  in  a  very  crude  state. 
A  small  fraction  of  the  heat  produced  by  the  combustion  is  at  present 
made  available  for  our  use.  By  means  of  the  best  appliances  now  known 
the  consumption  of  gas  could  be  reduced  to  less  than  one-half,  and  per- 
haps to  less  than  one-third  of  what  is  now  used,  without  trenching  upon 
the  required  amount  of  heat.  It  is  along  these  lines  that  the  principal 
encouragement  to  the  introduction  of  manufactured  fuel  gas  is  to  be 
derived. 

The  remedy  for  the  evil  complained  of,  viz.,  extravagance  in  the  use 
of  the  gas,  can  be  effectively  reached  by  the  introduction  of  meters. 
Meters  have  now  been  constructed  for  this  specific  purpose,  and  they 
certainly  ought  to  be  introduced  forthwith  into  all  cities  and  villages, 
unless  the  very  small  villages  situated  directly  in  the  gas  fields  shall  be 
exempt.  When  a  proper  price  is  placed  on  the  gas,  and  when  each  con- 
sumer is  obliged  to  pay  for  what  he  uses,  an  adequate  motive  to  economy 


264  GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO. 

+ 

will  for  the  first  time  be  brought  into  operation.  It  is  to  the  common 
interest  of  the  gas  companies  and  the  consumers  that  these  results  shall 
be  attained  as  soon  as  possible. 

In  the  two  preceding  chapters  the  rates  prevailing  in  the  towns  now 
supplied  with  gas  have  been  given. 

II.     FUEL  FOR  MANUFACTURERS. 

(1)  Power. — For  use  in  the  boilers  of  steam  engines  natural  gas  finds 
one  of  its  large  and  important  applications.  It  is  applied  to  the  generation 
of  power  for  a  large  variety  of  manufactures,  for  pumping  the  water 
required  in  a  city  supply,  and  for  conversion  into  the  light  derived  from 
electric  illumination.  In  each  and  all  of  these  uses  it  is  simply  the  perfect 
type  of  fuel,  to  the  attainment  of  which  the  civilized  world,  especially  in 
its  great  cities,  is  sure  to  come.  The  economies  brought  into  operation  by 
its  introduction  are  numerous,  and  among  them  may  be  named  the  reduc- 
tion of  labor  in  maintaining  the  fire  and  in  the  removal  of  ashes  and 
clinkers,  and  especially  in  the  greater  durability  of  the  boilers  and  engines 
through  the  steady  supply  of  heat.  To  the  cities  in  which  gas  is  used  for 
power,  one  of  the  desirable  results  also  is  found  in  the  happy  exemption 
that  they  enjoy  from  the  smoke  and  soot  that  coal  so  used  produces. 

Amount  Consumed. — As  to  the  important  question  "  What  amount  of 
gas  is  required  for  an  engine  of  given  horse-power  ?  "  no  general  answer, 
unfortunately,  can  be  given.  Such  an  answer  can  not  be  given  even  in 
terms  of  coal,  for  the  reason  that  there  is  no  uniformity  in  the  consump- 
tion. Two  boilers  rated  at  the  same  horse-power  and  doing  the  same  work, 
may  require  amounts  of  coal  differing  from  each  other  by  a  considerable 
percentage.  The  fuel  consumption  is  affected  by  many  factors  which  need 
not  be  enumerated  here.  This  entire  subject  is,  so  for  as  the  general  prac- 
tice is  concerned,  in  a  very  unscientific  and  unsatisfactory  condition. 
Coal  has  been  so  cheap  throughout  the  world  that  manufacturers  have 
knowingly  tolerated  its  wasteful  use  rather  than  take  the  trouble  which 
the  correction  of  such  waste  would  involve.  The  subject  is,  however, 
commanding  much  larger  consideration  at  the  present  time  than  it  has 
heretofore  had  and  great  advances  and  improvements  are  in  sight.  The 
efficiency  of  fuel  probably  reaches  its  highest  point  in  the  engines  of  ocean- 
going steamships. 

In  determining  the  amounts  of  gas  used  in  steam  boilers  and  other 
applications,  we  have  heretofore  labored  under  the  great  disadvantage  of 
lacking  any  simple  means  of  measuring  these  amounts.  Meters  adapted 
to  such  work  have  not  been  at  hand  until  very  recently  at  least,  and  for 
large  consumption  they  are  held  at  high  prices.  The  recent  invention  of 
a  pipe  line  gauge  by  Prof.  S.  W.  Robinson,  of  the  Department  of  Mechan- 


UTILIZATION   OF    GAS.  265 

ical  Engineering,  Ohio  State  University,  has  changed  all  this,  and  it  is  now 
entirely  feasible  to  determine  the  amount  passing  through  a  supply  pipe 
of  any  size  and  under  any  pressure,  by  simply  tapping  the  pipe  and  intro- 
ducing the  gauge.  A  full  account  of  this  instrument  and  of  the  method 
of  using,  it,  together  with  a  table  showing  the  results  derived  from  it,  is 
given  in  the  succeeding  chapter.  Professor  Robinson's  previous  work  in 
this  direction,  in  devising  an  easy  means  of  determining  the  volume  of 
great  wells,  was  a  most  important  contribution  to  the  natural  gas  interests 
of  the  country.  It  was  the  first,  and  is  the  only  system  made  public,  by 
which  any  thing  better  than  guesses  can  b&  given  as  to  the  capacity  of  gas 
wells.  Its  foundation  on  the  mathematical  and  physical  side  is  secure, 
and  its  validity  has  never  been  questioned  by  any  competent  authority. 
The  sapient  critics  who  complain  that  the  tables  contain  such  numbers  as 
1,578,150  cubic  feet  for  the  production  of  a  well,  and  shrewdly  inquire 
how  anybody  can  be  sure  as  to  the  150  feet  in  the  last  three  places,  are  not 
included  under  the  head  named  in  the  preceding  sentence  as  competent 
authority.  They  would  find  the  same  trouble  with  all  sorts  of  tables  which 
grow  out  of  established  formulas,  and  their  objections  it  belongs  to  the  district 
school-teacher  to  overcome.  But  the  present  contribution  to  the  natural 
gas  interests  of  the  country  is  far  more  important  than  the  first,  because 
more  directly  connected  with  practical  interests.  It  puts  it  into  the  power 
of  the  company  or  municipal  corporation  to  apportion  its  charges  intelli- 
gently and  justly  among  its  consumers,  large  and  small,  and  this  power  no 
natural  gas  company  has  heretofore  enjoyed.  When  such  a  company 
undertakes  the  supply  of  a  manufacturing  concern  requiring  large  amounts 
of  gas,  the  effort  is  made  to  learn  the  amount  of  coal  that  has  heretofore 
been  used  by  the  factory.  The  true  answer  to  this  question  it  is  not 
always  easy  to  obtain.  But  supposing  the  gas  company  learns  the  exact 
amount  of  coal  required  to  do  the  work  of  the  factory,  can  it  proceed  from 
this  basis  to  fix  a  proper  price  for  the  gas  which  displaces  it  ?  The  muni- 
cipal regulation  often  comes  in  to  aid  in  settling  the  question,  by  an  ordi- 
nance forbidding  the  company  to  charge  more  than  three-fourths  of  the 
price  of  the  coal  displaced ;  but  without  this  decision  from  the  outside,  can 
the  company  translate  the  tons  of  coal  into  terms  of  gas  measurement  so 
as  to  do  justice  to  all  interests?  It  can  not.  No  man  knows  what  num- 
ber of  cubic  feet  of  gas  are  equivalent  to  a  ton  of  coal  for  a  specified  purpose 
and  used  in  some  particular  way.  It  may  be  asked,  with  surprise,  whether 
we  do  not  know  the  equivalent  of  a  ton  of  Pittsburgh  coal,  for  example,  in 
Trenton  limestone  gas.  We  know  the  theoretical  but  not  the  practical 
equivalent.  The  figures  deduced  from  such  measurements  as  have  been 
made,  range  from  14,000  to  30,000  cubic  feet  as  the  equivalent.  For  many 
purposes  25,000  feet  will  be  found  nearly  an  equivalent,  and  this  is  probably 


266  GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO. 

the  best  general  figure  that  can  be  assumed.  In  a  pumping  station  in 
Ohio,  a  careful  measurement  showed  that  25,066  feet  were  required  to  do 
the  work  of  one  ton  of  coal.  In  other  cases  28,000  cubic  feet  have  been 
found  to  be  the  approximate  equivalent,  and,  as  before  observed,  the  equiv- 
alent falls  as  low  in  some  cases  as  14,000  cubic  feet. 

Justice  to  all  interests  requires,  of  course,  that  all  consumers  should 
pay  for  the  gas  which  they  respectively  use  at  the  same  rate,  some  allow- 
ance being  made,  as  is  proper,  for  the  decreased  expense  of  distribution 
to  large  consumers.  A  price  per  thousand  feet  should  be  given  on  which 
all  could  count.  But  to  establish  rates  on  such  a  basis  measurements 
must  be  practicable  ;  or,  in  other  words,  a  meter  or  a  gauge  must  be  em- 
ployed. The  meter  is  not  forthcoming,  at  least  in  practicable  shape  and 
within  practicable  limits  of  cost.  A  gauge  is,  however,  at  our  hands.  It 
is  simple  in  construction,  inexpensive,  and  applicable  to  every  purpose. 
In  cases  where  the  use  of  the  pipe  line  is  constant,  one  observation  an- 
swers for  a  day  or  a  month.  Where  the  use  varies,  observations  must  be 
made  for  its  several  stages.  It  has  been  in  hand  too  short  a  time  to 
afford  a  large  series  of  facts  as  to  the  amounts  of  gas  used  under  steam 
boilers;  but  such  facts  as  have  been  obtained  show  an  extremely  wide 
range,  even  in  the  same  general  line  of  work.  These  discordant  records 
serve  to  set  in  clear  light  the  careless  and  unscientific  way  in  which  fuel 
is  commonly  used  for  the  generation  of  power.  Under  the  most  approved 
method  of  consumption  it  is  stated,  on  good  authority,  that  a  20-horse- 
power  boiler  can  be  run  on  1,000  feet  of  Trenton  limestone  gas  per  hour. 
Results  corresponding  to  this  in  efficiency  are  very  rare.  The  results  of 
the  measurement  of  gas  used  in  three  flouring  mills  are  at  hand.  In 
the  first,  the  number  of  feet  of  gas  required  per  barrel  is  given  as  a  little 
less  than  1,000  (960).  Jn  a  second  mill  the  rate  was  found  to  be  1,640  feet 
to  the  barrel.  In  a  third,  the  rate  was  found  to  be  2,500  feet  to  the  barrel. 
In  the  first  mill  the  best  system  of  combustion  was  in  force.  The  rate  of 
several  of  the  gas  companies  to  flouring  mills  is  four  cents  per  barrel. 

A  boiler  rated  at  70-horse-power  was  found  to  be  using  4,920  feet 
per  hour.  Another  of  about  the  eame  rating  was  found  to  be  using  4,620 
per  hour.  A  third  set  of  boilers,  rated  at  120-horse-power,  was  using 
11,370  feet  per  hour.  By  some  companies  about  fifty  feet  per  hour  are 
counted  to  1-horse-power.  By  others  about  eighty  feet  are  counted  to 
1-horse-power.  Six  pounds  of  coal  are  thought  to  be  equal  to  the  same 
power.  Facts  like  these  show  that  the  precious  stock  of  volatile  fuel,  that 
we  have  lately  acquired,  is  being  wantonly  reduced  by  a  very  wasteful 
system  of  use,  in  which  two  or  three  feet  are  taken  to  do  the  work  of  one. 

The  strawboard  works  of  the  several  towns  in  which  they  are  sup- 
plied with  gaseous  fuel  are  very  large  consumers. 


UTILIZATION   OF    GAS.  267 

(2)  Fuel  Proper. — Under  this  head  by  far  the  largest  consumption  of 
natural  gas  in  the  country  is  to  be  found.  A  part  of  this  use  is  allowable, 
at  least  with  qualifications  and  under  protest ;  a  large  part  is  wholly  in- 
defensible. It  is  little  less  than  vandalism  to  turn  this  superfine  fuel,  in 
amounts  aggregating  many  millions  of  feet  every  day,  to  the  commonest 
uses  of  fuel ;  as,  for  example,  the  burning  of  common  brick  or  draining 
tile,  or  in  calcining  common  limestone,  or  to  be  consumed  in  an  iron 
mill.  For  such  use  no  adequate  justification  exists.  Neither  cupidity 
nor  stupidity  should  be  allowed  to  work  out  these  evil  results.  If  the 
State  were  wise  enough  and  were  armed  with  proper  power,  it  would 
surely  forbid  such  an  abuse  of  its  priceless  resources. 

GLASS  MANUFACTURE. 

Among  the  industries  to  which  natural  gas  is  applied  on  the 
large  scale  as  fuel,  there  is  one  to  which  its  adaptation  is  so  happy,  and  in 
which  it  brings  about  such  valuable  and  important  results,  that  if  any 
such  consumption  is  to  be  tolerated  at  all,  it  should  be  in  this  case. 
This  industry  is  glass  manufacture.  A  fuel  that  can  be  applied  in 
steady  force  and  in  unvarying  amount,  that  is  possessed  of  enormous 
heating  power,  in  the  combustion  of  which  neither  smoke  nor  ashes 
ever  appear,  and  the  introduction  of  which  releases  a  considerable  body 
of  the  least  desirable  labor  employed  in  the  factory,  is  easily  recognized  as 
the  ideal  of  the  glass-maker ;  and  as  soon  as  it  was  possible  to  make  use 
of  it  any  where  in  this  way,  such  a  use  became  almost  a  necessity  to  the 
entire  interest.  For  fuel  of  this  character,  the  manufacture  could  well 
afford  to  have  paid  a  considerable  advance  on  the  price  of  the  coal  which 
it  displaces.  In  fact,  if  he  paid  only  the  price  of  the  coal  displaced,  he 
would  receive  a  notable  advantage  from  its  introduction — an  advantage 
that  would  seriously  threaten  his  competitors.  But  what  shall  be  said  of 
the  conditions  of  the  manufacture  when  it  is  remembered  that  this  new 
fuel  was  supplied  at  first  for  much  less  than  the  displaced  coal  would  cost, 
and  that  shortly  afterwards,  on  the  discovery  of  the  new  gas  fields  of  Ohio 
and  Indiana,  not  only  was  it  offered  absolutely  free,  or  at  a  merely  nomi- 
nal price  for  a  term  of  years,  but  that  large  benefactions  in  the  shape  of 
lands,  buildings,  and  sometimes  cash  subscriptions,  awaited  any  manufact- 
urer who  would  remove  his  plant  to  the  Western  fields  or  build  a  new 
plant  there. 

It  is  easy  to  see  that  these  new  conditions  must  have  been  revolution- 
ary in  their  effect  upon  the  business  at  large.  There  are  now  more  than 
700  glass  pots  in  parts  of  Ohio  and  Indiana  where  four  years  ago  not  a 
factory  had  ever  been  thought  of.  A  full  half  of  the  table  ware  and 
pressed  glassware  of  the  country  is  now*manufactured  in  the  new  gas  fields. 


268  GEOLOGY   OF    OHIO. 

Among  these  interests  are  included  the  largest  single  plate  glass  works  of 
the  United  States,  which  commands  the  product  of  seventy  glass  pots, 
and  also  one  establishment  which  sends  out  as  fine  cut-glass  as  this 
country  has  ever  produced. 

The  glass  manufacture  of  the  country  ought  not  to  have  been  sub- 
jected to  such  hard  terms  as  those  described  above.  Before  natural  gas 
was  applied  to  this  use,  this  interest  was  in  a  soflnd  and  healthful  state. 
As  such  industries  always  tend  to  do,  it  had  established  a  number  of 
centers  of  production.  The  prominent  ones  for  the  Mississippi  Valley 
were  in  western  Pennsylvania,  in  eastern  Ohio,  and  in  West  Virginia. 
Those  of  Pittsburgh  were  among  the  first  to  obtain  the  new  fuel,  and  they 
maintain  it  still,  though  on  a  tenure  that  is  growing  more  precarious 
every  year.  The  supply  for  the  other  districts  named  has  been  inter- 
rupted and  unsatisfactory  at  the  best,  and  has  finally  given  out  altogether, 
or  at  least  has  been  reduced  to  such  small  proportions  that  it  can  no  longer 
be  depended  upon.  It  is  from  these  last  districts  that  the  main  draft  has 
been  made  in  the  building  up  of  this  industry  in  the  new  fields.  Many 
of  the  old  factories  are  struggling  to  maintain  themselves  until  the  storm 
of  free  gas  shall  pass  by.  Some  have  been  transferred  bodily  to  the  new 
fields ;  but  in  many  cases  the  younger  members  of  the  firms,  and  some- 
times the  glass- workers  themselves  have  taken  part  in  the  foundation  of 
the  newly  established  factories.  In  part  of  the  instances,  the  municipal 
corporations  of  the  towns  that  have  found  access  to  the  gas,  and  in  other 
cases,  private  companies  from  the  gas  districts  have  made  the  offer  of  free 
gas,  which  the  eastern  manufacturers  have  found  it  impossible  to  resist. 
In  Ohio,  municipal  corporations  have  led  the  way ;  in  Indiana,  private 
companies,  whose  interests  were  based  on  real  estate  which  a  glass  factory 
would  bring  into  market,  have  taken  the  lead.  The  results  of  these  solici- 
tations have  been  already  stated  in  general  terms,  i.  e.,  in  the  establish- 
ment of  700  new  glass  pots  in  these  gas  fields. 

Neither  towns  nor  companies  knew  what  they  were  offering  when 
they  lavished  free  fuel  upon  the  glass  makers.  They  had  come  into 
possession  of  a  surprising  fortune  in  this  fuel  that  flowed  forth  from  the 
earth  from  what  seemed  to  be  inexhaustible  fountains.  To  persuade 
manufacturers  to  avail  themselves  of  this  wonderful  supply  would  be 
doing  a  double  service.  It  would  build  up  the  towns,  adding  value  to 
every  interest,  and  it  would  make  the  manufacturers  themselves  rich. 
As  has  been  shown  in  a  preceding  chapter,  Findlay  alone  has  secured  the 
building  of  more  than  200  glass  pots,  distributed  through  a  dozen  factories. 
Since  these  were  first  brought  into  operation  they  have  made,  by  them- 
selves, a  very  severe  draft  upon  the  gas  resources  of  the  town,  and  it  is 


UTILIZATION    OF    GAS.  269 

plain  to  all  that  the  supply  which  they  require  can  not  be  indefinitely 
maintained. 

It  is  vain  \o  point  out  a  more  excellent  way  that  might  have  been 
pursued — but  suppose,  for  a  moment,  instead  of  this  demoralizing  offer 
of  free  gas  and  the  accompanying  grants  and  benefactions,  the  glass  manu- 
facturers had  been  assured  that  they  could  secure  fuel  in  the  new  gas  fields 
at  the  price  of  coal,  the  gas  to  be  supplied  by  measure,  as  coal  is  paid  for 
by  weight.  While  Findlay  would  not  have  gained  half  the  number  of 
factories,  she  could  have  assured  this  half  a  far  longer  lease  of  life  with 
all  the  incidental  advantages  of  such  a  continuance,  and  this  policy 
would  have  wrought  much  lees  hardship  and  loss  in  the  old  glass  manu- 
facture, and  possibly  less  in  the  end  to  the  new  companies.  Such  specula- 
tions are  vain.  The  facts,  including  especially  the  human  nature  in- 
volved, being  what  they  are,  it  was  necessary  that  what  has  happened 
should  happen.  Still,  we  must  be  allowed  for  a  moment  to  deplore  the 
short-sighted  and  foolish  policy  that  has  resulted  in  such  an  extravagant 
and  wasteful  use  of  these  new  resources. 

How  much  gas  does  a  glass  factory  consume  in  a  day  ?  Up  to  the 
present  time  no  answer  to  this  question  has  been  made  public.  It  is 
probable  that  the  great  gas  companies  have  reached  some  approximation, 
based  either  on  actual  measurement  by  meter,  or  on  some  translation  of 
the  coal  used  in  the  furnace  into  cubic  feet  of  gas.  But  whatever  figures 
have  been  reached  have  been  counted  private  property  and  have  not  been 
turned  over  to  the  general  service.  Certainly  not  a  glass  company  nor  a 
gas  company  in  Ohio,  up  to  three  months  ago,  had  any  definite  opinion, 
not  to  say  knowledge,  on  the  subject.  The  only  exceptions  to  this  state- 
ment that  have  been  met  are  the  following,  viz. :  A  report  obtained  from 
one  person,  that  a  ten-pot  glass  works  required  for  the  melting  alone,  the 
gas  being  consumed  in  the  most  economical  way,  288,000  cubic  feet  per 
day ;  and,  secondly,  an  estimate  made  by  a  glass  company  in  its  negotia- 
tions with  a  village  council,  that  a  ten-pot  window  glass  factory  would 
not  exceed  300,000  feet  per  day  in  its  use.  The  amount  of  coal  used 
could,  of  course,  be  easily  determined.  Forty  bushels  per  day  is,  by  a 
current  figure,  counted  a  sufficient  supply  for  each  pot  of  a  window  glass 
works,  and  twenty-eight  bushels  for  each  pot  of  a  flint  glass  works.  In 
this  calculation  Pittsburgh  coal  is  taken  as  the  standard. 

Furthermore,  no  distinction  is  made  by  the  gas  companies,  as  a  rule, 
between  window  glass  and  table  ware  factories.  A  glass  pot  is  counted  a 
glass  pot,  whatever  its  capacity  or  use.  The  Robinson  pipe  line  gauge 
has  put  an  end  to  this  state  of  ignorance  and  indifference  as  to  gas  con- 
sumption in  connection  with  this  manufacture.  It  has  now  been  applied 
to  thirteen  of  the  principal  glass  factories  of  northwestern  Ohio,  and 


270  GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO. 

while  the  results  are  in  some  respects  surprising,  and  especially  because 
of  the  large  amount  of  gas  that  they  show  is  being  used,  they  are  entirely 
consistent  with  each  other.  Besides  the  complete  tests  already  named, 
tests  of  partial  use  have  been  made  in  many  other  instances,  the  figures 
derived  from  which  agree  with  those  of  the  complete  tests.  The  tests 
were  made  on  factories  of  different  numbers  of  pots,  with  supply  pipes  of 
different  diameters  and  under  different  pressures.  It  is  obvious,  there- 
fore, that  the  glass  pot  is  the  only  unit  of  measure  that  can  be  adopted  in 
this  report. 

Furthermore,  the  tests  were  made  alike  on  window  glass  and  flint 
glass  or  table  ware  houses,  including  also  bottle  works  and  chimney  works 
as  well.  The  manufacturers,  as  indicated  in  a  preceding  paragraph,  are 
well  aware  of  a  considerable  difference  in  the  fuel  consumed  by  window 
glass  houses  and  flint  glass  houses,  but  the  gas  companies,  ag  a  rule,  make 
the  same  charge  for  both.  The  window  glass  houses,  however,  use  about 
forty  per  cent,  more  gas  than  the, flint  glass  works.  The  same  difference,  it 
will  be  observed,  obtains  in  the  use  of  coal.  Some  of  these  tests  were 
repeated  several  times;  in  a  single  case,  the  entire  consumption  of  a 
factory  was  observed  and  averaged  for  thirty  days.  All  the  f  uel  use  of  the 
establishment,  it  will  be  observed,  is  included  under  this  head,  such  as 
flattening  ovens,  glory  holes,  layers,  pot  arches,  and  steam  power.  While 
these  tests  were  being  made,  the  figures  obtained  from  the  tables  were 
given  out  to  the  manufacturers  and  gas  companies  interested,  subject  to 
revision.  Further  work  done  during  the  publication  of  the  present  vol- 
ume has  introduced  an  important  correction  which  is  now  applied  for  the 
first  time.  The  results  given  in  the  following  tables  are  considerably  less 
than  the  figures  to  which  partial  currency  has  been  given  in  the  way  indi- 
cated above.  The  earlier  figures  have  also  been  used  in  the  preceding 
portions  of  this  report  and  particularly  on  pages  121,  152,  188  and  192. 
All  of  these  must  be  reduced  by  about  12  per  cent,  to  agree  with  the  facts 
as  shown  by  Professor  Robinson's  latest  investigations.  The  tables  used 
are  entirely  reliable,  but  corrections  must  be  applied  for  the  several  ele- 
ments involved  in  the  measurements. 

A  window  glass  works  divides  the  day  into  three  stages  of  unequal 
length,  viz.,  melting,  blowing  and  blocked  furnace.  Each  of  these  stages 
has  to  be  separately  tested,  and  calculations  must  be  made  for  its  duration. 
The  bottle  glass  works  agree  in  the  main  with  the  window  glass  factories, 
while  the  lamp  and  chimney  works  come  under  the  same  head  as  the 
flint  glass  factories.  Five  window  glass  and  bottle  works  were  gauged 
through  the  several  stages  of  their  daily  run,  with  the  following  results  : 


• 


UTILIZATION    OF   GAS. 


271 


1.  58,800  cubic  feet  per  pot  for  twenty-four  hours. 

2.  60,000  "  "  "  " 

3.  61,200  "  "  •'  " 

4.  61,360  "  "  "  " 

5.  60,270  "  "  "  "     (Bottle  works.) 

The  figures  given  in  No.  4  show  the  average  of  a  thirty  days'  run  of  a 
ten-pot  window  glass  factory.  This  last  result  is,  of  course,  the  most 
valuable.  The  close  agreement  in  these  measurements  will  not  escape 
notice.  The  facts  that  the  number  of  pots  in  the  list  of  glass  furnaces 
measured  ranges  from  eight  to  eighteen,  that  the  supply  pipes  varied  in 
size,  being  respectively  four,  five  and  six  inches  in  diameter,  and  that  the 
pressure  in  the  lines  ranges  from  sixteen  to  sixty  ounces,  render  it  clear 
that  the  gauge  in  use  in  all  these  determinations  must  be  able  to  fasten 
with  accuracy  upon  the  essential  elements.  It  may,  therefore,  be  counted 
established  that  every  window  glass  pot  in  the  new  glass  centers  of  north- 
ern Ohio  is  using  60,000  cubic  feet  in  twenty-four  hours,  its  proportion  of 
the  general  service  of  the  works  being  counted  in.  This  is  far  in  excess 
of  the  estimates  based  on  the  use  of  coal.  As  already  observed,  forty 
bushels  of  coal  per  pot  are  held  to  be  enough  to  run  a  window  glass  works 
twenty-four  hours.  From  this  it  might  be  expected,  according  to  one  of 
the  most  commonly  accepted  scale  of  equivalents,  that  40,000  feet  of  gas 
would  suffice  for  a  day's  run  per  pot.  But  whether  from  lavish  use  or 
from  other  causes,  about  fifty  per  cent,  additional  is  actually  used. 
There  can,  however,  be  but  little  doubt  that  if  the  glass  manufacturers 
were  required  to  pay  five  or  six  cents  per  thousand  feet  by  meter  or  gauge, 
a  large  economy  would  at  once  be  effected. 

Coming  to  the  flint  glass  manufacture,  we  find  the  following  results, 
the  tests  being  made  on  factories  in  which  the  number  of  pots  ranged  from 
eight  to  forty-five : 


/  31,230  cubic  feet  per  pot  for  twenty-four  hours. 

\  39,270 

37,430 

38,470 

40,530 

41,230 

41,370 
( 44,450 
\  49,875 

50,100 


The  disparity  in  these  results  will  attract  attention  at  once.  In  ex- 
planation it  can  be  said  that  some  works  were  being  run  to  their  full 
capacity  when  the  tests  were  made,  while  others  were  not.  Two  separate 
measures  are  given  for  each  of  two  factories.  These  measurements  were 
taken  on  different  days,  or  on  different  parts  of  the  same  day,  and  per- 
haps show  the  range  of  consumption. 


2J2  GEOLOGY    OF   OHIO. 

The  figures  go  to  show  that  the  flint  glass  works  in  the  Ohio  field  use 
35,000  to  45,000  cubic  feet  of  gas  per  day,  the  use  covering  glory  holes, 
layers,  pot-arches  and  boiler  power,  as  before  noted.  It  will  not  be  far 
amiss  to  count  the  amount  used  40,000  feet  per  pot  for  twenty-four  hours. 

According  to  the  measurements  given  above,  a  window  glass  pot  con- 
sumes 60,000  cubic  feet  of  gas  in  a  day,  1,800,000  feet  in  a  month,  and  18,- 
000,000  feet  in  a  working  year  (ten  months).  A  flint  glass  pot,  on  the  other 
hand,  consumes  40,000  feet  in  a  day,  1,200,000  feet  in  a  month,  and  12,000,- 
000  feet  in  a  year  (ten  months).  At  the  rate  of  one  cent  per  thousand 
feet  of  gas,  every  window  glass  pot  should  pay  $18  per  month,  and  a  flint 
glass  pot,  $12  per  month.  The  highest  rate  charged  by  the  municipal  gas 
plants  of  Ohio  is  $20  per  annum.  In  other  words,  these  corporations  re- 
ceive $20  for  18,000  000  feet  of  gas,  if  a  window  glass  pot  is  paid  for.  This 
is  at  the  rate  of  one  mill  for  a  thousand  feet  of  gas.  The  price  of  Pitts- 
burgh coal,  translated  into  these  figures  would  be  somewhere  between  two 
and  five  cents  per  ton.  Fostoria  is  now  advancing  its  rates  from  $20  a 
pot  per  annum  to  $40.  When  the  advance  is  made  she  will  be  receiving 
two  mills  for  each  thousand  feet  of  gas  used  in  the  window  glass  works 
in  the  place,  and  three  mills  for  the  gas  used  in  the  flint  glass  factories. 
The  Toledo  glass  factories  pay  the  highest  rate  established  in  Ohio,  viz., 
$30  per  pot  per  month.  This  rate  gives  about  one  and  three-fourths  cents 
for  the  gas  used  in  window  glass.  The  flint  glass  works  use  the  gas  with 
economy,  and  thus  pay  a  higher  rate  for  what  they  use.  The  Pittsburgh  rate 
is  $60  per  pot  per  month.  This  establishes  a  rate  of  three  and  one-half 
and  five  cents  respectively  for  window  and  flint  glass  houses,  supposing 
Pittsburgh  gas  to  be  used  as  lavishly  as  that  of  the  new  fields.  Raising 
the  price  of  gas  does  not  lead  to  economy  in  its  use  unless  meters  are 
introduced  at  the  same  time.  It  is  the  vicious  system  of  selling  it  by 
the  mixer,  or  the  glass  pot,  or  by  lump  contracts  generally,  that  is  responsi- 
ble for  the  monstrous  waste  that  is  in  progress. 

The  number  of  glass  pots  in  northwestern  Ohio  can  be  approximately 
counted  at  the  present  time  as  500.  The  reason  why  the  exact  number 
can  not  be  given  is  that  several  tanks  are  to  be  taken  into  account,  and 
their  equivalent  in  pots  is  not  absolutely  fixed.'  Of  the  entire  number, 
about  164  belong  to  window  glass  works,  and  320  are  devoted  to  table 
ware  and  lamps  and  chimneys.  On'  the  basis  named  above  the  window 
glass  pots  require  9,840,000  cubic  feet  of  gas  daily,  and  the  flint  glass  pots 
require  12,800,000  feet  daily.  The  total  daily  consumption  is  thus  seen 
to  be  22,640,000.  and  the  annual  consumption  (300  days)  would  be  ex- 
pressed by  the  figures  6,720,000^00  feet,  an  amount  sufficient  to  meet  the 
entire  fuel  demands  of  a  population  of  100,000  people  for  a  year. 

The  glass  manufacture  of  northwestern  Ohio  at  the  present  time  is 


UTILIZATION    OF    GAS.  273* 

giving  prDfitable  employment  to  a  large  number  of  people.  A  consider- 
able part  of  the  labor  employed  is  skilled  laber  and  commands  large 
wages.  The  advantages  derived  from  the  use  of  this  large  amount  of  gas 
that  is  shown  in  the  above  calculations,  are  distributed  widely  through 
the  communities  in  which  the  work  is  going  forward.  While  much  the 
largest  use  of  gas  as  fuel  is  to  be  charged  to  the  account  of  glass  makingr 
there  is  certainly  more  to  be  said  in  favor  of  it,  than  for  any  other  of  the 
industries  that  make  these  large  demands.  So  valuable  has  it  become  to 
the  towns  that  have  doubled  or  trebled  their  population  within  five  yeara 
because  of  it,  that  every  effort  should  be  made  to  economize  and  thus- 
lengthen  the  supply.  It  would  be  a  serious  calamity  to  northern  Ohio  if 
its  infant  industries  should  be  transplanted  to  other  fields  because  of  the* 
premature  exhaustion  of  its  gas  supply. 

IRON  AND  CLAY  WORKING. 

The  group  of  industries  to  which  we  now  come  are  to  be  regarded 
with  much  less  favor  in  their  relations  to  natural  gas  than  the  glass  manu- 
facture already  described.  There  is,  in  fact,  very  little  to  be  said  in  behalf 
of  supplying  iron  and  clay- working  industries  with  the  new  fuel,  beyond 
the  incontrovertible  fact  that  it  is  wonderfully  convenient  for  the  manu- 
facturers and  laborers,  and  the  additional  fact  that  the  manufacturers  are 
often  willing  to  pay  the  current  prices  for  it.  But  the  amounts  of  gas 
used  in  these  lines  of  manufacture  are  so  large,  and  the  work  to  which 
they  apply  it  is  for  the  most  part  so  coarse  and  common,  that  it  is  con- 
trary to  the  public  interest  to  allow  them  to  use  it  at  any  price.  Its  intro- 
duction into  iron  manufacture  is  decidedly  the  worst  mistake  that  haa 
been  made  in  its  application  thus  far.  It  is  true  that  this  was  the  first 
kind  of  manufacturing  enterprise  to  which  it  was  applied,  but  a  year  or 
two  of  its  exhaustive  demands  ought  to  have  been  enough  to  satisfy  any  , 
candid  observer  that  there  is  not  enough  of  it  and  that  it  is  too  good  for 
work  of  this  grade.  Its  application  to  iron  and  clay  working,  and  espe- 
cially the  former,  in  any  community  simply  means  the  cutting  in  two  of 
the  duration  of  the  supply,  or  perhaps  even  a  greater  reduction  than  this. 
No  field  has  been  found  as  yet,  and  none  will  be  found,  that  can  endure 
the  draft  of  a  well-expanded  iron  manufacture  for  a  half  dozen  years.  The 
Murryville  district  is  perhaps  the  most  prolific  gas  territory  yet  dis- 
covered by  the  drill.  Its  resources  have  proved  truly  astonishing,  but  six 
years  have  been  sufficient  to  bring  it  to  the  verge  of  exhaustion.  The 
rock  pressure  has  fallen  to  lees  than  25  per  cent,  of  what  it  originally  was. 
and  it  is  only  by  means  of  pipe  lines  of  a  size  unheard  of  before,  and  in 

18        G. 


274  GEOLOGY    OF   OHIO. 

some  cases  of  gas  pumps  located  upon  the  lines,  that  the  remnants  of  the 
gas  of  this  great  field  are  now  reaching  the  market. 

Iron  Mills. — It  is  fortunate  for  the  Ohio  field  that  iron  industries  are 
more  complicated,  and  are  moved  with  less  facility  than  glass  manufac- 
tures. While  the  latter  have  been  established  in  strong  force  in  the  new 
gas  fields,  comparatively  few  iron  mills  have  been  here  built  up.  A  large 
rolling  mill  in  Toledo  that  was  in  operation  before  gas  was  discovered  in 
northern  Ohio,  was  unfortunately  taken  on  its  lines  by  the  Northwestern 
Ohio  Gas  Company  at  an'  early  date.  At  this  time  the  company  appar- 
ently did  not  appreciate  the  drain  which  this  enormous  and  steady  use 
would  make  upon  its  resources.  It  is  probable  that  the  mill  has  used 
nearly  one-half  of  the  gas  brought  tb  the  city  limits  by  one  of  its  main 
lines.  The  difference  in  service  between  this  half  and  the  other  half, 
which  is  distributed  through  the  households  of  the  city  and  used  in  the 
production  of  steam  power  and  small  manufactures  there,  is  immense. 
In  the  one  case,  a  few  less  laborers  would  be  employed  by  the  burning  of 
natural  gas,  a  result  not  in  itself  especially  desirable ;  and,  secondly,  those 
that  are  employed  would  find  their  work  considerably  lightened,  a  worthy 
result  if  not  bought  at  too  great  cost;  and,  in  the  third  place,  the  owners 
would  obtain  the  advantage  of  the  finest  fuel  of  the  world  far  below  its 
cost.  In  this  last  result,  there  is  no  service  that  should  specially  recom- 
mend it.  The  iron  mill  was  here  before  gas  was  known,  and  it  will  re- 
main when  gas  is  gone. 

On  the  other  hand,  when  applied  to  household  use,  the  same  amount 
of  gas  would  lighten  the  labors,  and  add  greatly  to  the  comfort  of  many 
thousands  of  people. 

Findlay  has  two  rolling  mills,  a  wire  nail  works  and  some  smaller 
iron  working  industries  dependent  upon  its  gas  lines.  The  first  important 
manufacturing  plant  brought  into  the  town  after  gas  was  discovered  here 
,was  the  Briggs  works.  It  has  had  from  the  first  practically  free  gas. 
It  has  expanded  with  the  growth  of  the  town  until  the  tool  works  with 
which  it  began  is  but  a  small  part  of  the  present  plant.  To  this  original 
enterprise  there  has  been  added,  from  time  to  time,  a  twenty-inch  mill, 
a  ten-inch  mill  and  a  chain  works.  The  Wetherell  mill  was  built  four 
years  ago,  but  it  has  not  been  in  steady  operation.  During  the  present 
season  it  has  been  running  with  moderate  force. 

Measurements  of  the  amount  of  gas  consumed  by  the  first  named 
of  these  establishments  have  been  made  and  repeated.  The  amount  is 
necessarily  large.  There  are  sixteen  puddling  furnaces  in  connection  with 
the  20-inch  mill,  also  one  heating  furnace  and  a  battery  of  boilers.  At 
one  test  fourteen  furnaces  were  found  running ;  at  another  test  but  ten. 
At  the  first  rate  216,300  feet  were  being  used  each  hour.  At  the  second 


UTILIZATION    OF    GAS.  2/5 

rate  168,000  feet  were  being  used  each  hour.  Counting  twenty  hours  as 
the  average  daily  duty  of  the  mill,  and  the  last  named  rate  as  certainly 
within  the  average  consumption,  this  branch  of  the  works  is  seen  to  be  using 
at  least  3,360,000  cubic  feet  of  gas  per  day.  The  remainder  of  the  work  as 
determined  by  a  single  measurement,  will  add  to  this  consumption  599,200 
feet  for  ten  hours'  duty,  making  the  total  consumption,  at  the  lowest  figure 
that  can  be  accepted,  3,960,000  cubic  feet  per  day.  The  average  will  un- 
doubtedly be  more  likely  to  exceed  4,000,000  feet  than  to  fall  below  this 
fignre.  For  this  amount  of  fuel,  the  company  has  paid  the  city  some- 
thing like  $200  per  annum. 

The  consumption  of  the  Wetherell  mill  was  found  to  be,  by  a  single 
set  of  measurements,  about  962,500  feet  per  day.  The  amount  of  gas 
used  in  these  two  mills  would  supply  125  table-ware  glass  pots.  It  is 
obvious  that  the  latter  use  would  furnish  employment  to  a  much  larger 
number  of  laborers  of  various  grades  than  the  iron  mills  do,  and  would 
therefore  be  considerably  more  advantageous  to  the  town.  Such  consider- 
ations do  not  appear  to  have  entered  the  minds  of  the  gas  trustees.  They 
have  given  gas  to  those  who  asked  it  and  from  those  who  would  borrow 
it  they  have  never  turned  away.  If  their  purpose  had  been  to  get  rid  of 
the  wonderful  fuel  as  soon  as  possible,  they  would  not  have  needed  to 
pursue  a  very  different  policy  from  that  which  they  have  followed. 

Clay  Working. — There  is  one  branch  of  clay  working,  that,  viz.,  of  the 
manufacture  of  pressed  brick  of  high  grade,  that  has  a  right  to  natural  gas 
in  its  manufacturing  business,  based  on  the  value  of  its  product.  Findlay 
and  North  Baltimore  are  both  manufacturing  brick  of  a  class  that  com- 
mands in  the  markets  $20  per  thousand.  The  gas  used  in  burning  them 
has  a  respectable  field  for  its  operations,  since  the  product  can  well  sustain 
a  proper  price  for  the  gas.  Natural  gas  is  also  employed  in  Columbus  in 
the  manufacture  of  the  Hallwood  Paving  Block,  a  brick  of  high  grade,  and 
for  the  gas  employed  a  fair  price  is  paid.  Its  adaptation  to  this  line  of 
work  is  simply  admirable. 

There  is  another  use  of  gas,  however,  in  the  same  general  line  that  is 
wholly  indefensible,  and  that  ought  in  every  case  to  be  instantly  arrested. 
In  Findlay,  Fostoria,  Tiffin  and  North  Baltimore  gas  is  being  used  in  the 
large  way  for  burning  the  commonest  of  bricks  for  the  commonest  of  uses. 
There  are  in  Findlay  three  brick  yards  dependent  upon  the  city  lines,  and 
two  large  establishments  that  are  making  brick  by  the  use  of  gas  from 
their  own  wells.  Their  aggregate  production  reaches  many  million  brick 
each  year.  The  products  of  these  yards  are  sold  at  prices  not  exceeding 
$4  per  thousand.  The  charges  for  the  gas  used  by  the  companies  so  far 
have  had  no  relation  to  the  fuel  consumed.  They  are  as  follows :  For 


2/6  GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO. 

brick  burned  in  open  kilns,  twenty-five  cents  per  thousand  and  for  brick 
burned  in  closed  kilns,  twenty  cents  per  thousand. 

Fostoria  has  three  brick  yards  and  a  draining-tile  works  actively  en- 
gaged in  the  manufacture  of  the  ordinary  products.  The  capacity  of  one 
of  the  brick  yards  is  2,000,000  brick  per  year.  The  city  has  heretofore 
charged  these  companies  for  the  gas  used  in  burning,  fifteen  cents  per 
thousand,  and  for  the  gas  used  in  the  tile  furnaces,  $8  per  kiln.  The  rate 
is  thought  to  be  about^the  same  as  fifty  cents  per  ton  for  coal. 

Tiffin  has  three  brick  yards  of  large  capacity  depending  upon  the  city 
lines.  One  of  them  turned  out  4,000,000  brick  last  year.  In  addition,  one 
yard  carried  seven  draining-tile  kilns.  For  the  gas  used,  the  manufact- 
urers have  paid  fifty  cents  per  thousand  for  marketable  brick.  The  price 
of  the  latter  at  no  time  exceeds  $4.  The  seven  tile  kilns  named  above 
pay  $50  monthly. 

The  fluctuating  use  of  gas  in  brick  manufacture  renders  gauge  meas- 
urements unsatisfactory  unless  many  observations  are  made.  A  series  of 
determinations  by  the  anemometer,  which  of  course  are  subject  to  the 
same  objections  as  a  gauge,  taken  in  1889,  indicates  that  a  single  yard  was 
using  at  least  2oO,000  feet  of  gas  per  day  ;  and,  further,  that  to  burn  a 
thousand  brick,  about  7,500  cubic  feet  of  gas  were  required,  no  account  being 
made  of  the  gas  used  in  the  steam  power  employed  in  the  preparation  of 
the  material.  During  the  season  in  which  the  works  are  driven  to  their 
full  capacity,  not  less  than  1,000  000  feet  of  gas  per  day  has  been  called 
into  requisition  for  this  unworthy  application  in  Tiffin  alone.  Compari- 
son with  the  wood  displaced  in  the  brick  yards  seems  to  indicate  that  for 
this  particular  use,  30,000  feet  of  gas  are  the  equivalent  of  one  ton  of  hard 
wood.  In  the  Pittsburgh  district,  the  price  ot  gas  for  burning  brick  is  at 
the  present  time  $1.30  per  thousand  in  the  summer,  and  $1.75  in  the 
winter,  and  the  kilns  must  in  every  case  be  enclosed. 

Lime  Burning, — This  is  another  of  the  uses  of  gas  that  is  wholly 
unjustifiable  and  which  should  no  longer  be  tolerated.  Bowling  Green 
led  in  this  manufacture  in  Ohio.  Fostoria  followed  early,  as  also  did 
Findlay,  Fremont  and  Gibsonburg.  More  recently  Sandusky  and  Colum- 
bus have  applied  gas  to  the  same  poor  use. 

For  this  lavish  and  unworthy  use  of  the  new  found  fuel,  the  munici- 
pal corporations  of  the  several  towns  that  have  obtained  access  to  the  gas 
fic-lds  are  chiefly  responsible.  Much  of  the  disastrous  drain  upon  the 
fields  which  they  have  caused  is  due  to  their  ignorance  of  the  nature  of 
the  gas  supply.  But  even  when  they  have  become  better  instructed  than 
they  were  at  first,  they  have  found  themselves  unable  to  resist  the 
demands  of  the  brick  manufacturers  and  the  lime  burners  and  the  iron 
•workers,  who  bore  a  part  of  the  public  burden  of  introducing  gas  into  th« 


UTILIZATION    OF    GAS.  277 

•town  and  who  have  no  other  way  of  drawing  advantage  from  their  por- 
tion of  the  expenditure  than  by  turning  the  gas  to  the  uses  here  com- 
plained of.  But  in  yielding  to  thf  se  demands,  they  have  given  to  these 
coarse  industries  an.  amount  of  this  priceless  fuel  vastly  in  excess  of  any 
legitimate  claims  that  they  could  urge;  and  in  so  doing  they  have  inflicted 
irreparable  injury  upon  the  great  body  of  the  tax-payers,  whose  main  com- 
mon interest  is  in  the  maintenance  of  the  supply  of  fuel  for  household 
use  as  long  as  possible.  These  corporations  have  given  away  this  limited 
.and  measured  store  almost  without  money  and  without  price.  The  manu- 
facturing interests  of  Findlay,  it  is  estimated,  consume  80  per  cent,  of  the 
gas  brought  into  the  town.  They  pay  less  than  one  tenth  of  the  entire 
revenue  of  the  field.  A  brick  maker  turns  out  from  his  kilns  4,000,000 
brick  in  a  season,  for  example,  and  consumes  in  burning  them  thirty  or 
forty  million  feet  of  gas.  He  obtains  the  gas  for  a  fifth  or  a  tenth  of  what 
the  equivalent  wood  or  coal  would  cost  him.  But  what  advantage  is  it 
to  the  bulk  of  the  population  that  the  brick  maker  has  got  his  fuel  for 
little  or  nothing?  He  has  shortened  the  total  enjoyment  of  gaseous  fuel 
by  months  in  so  doing,  but  beyond  a  small  reduction  in  the  price  of  brick 
for  those  who  chance  to  be  making  use  of  it,  he,  has  brought  no  cor- 
responding return  whatever  to  the  community. 

What  adequate  return,  for  example,  has  been  made,  or  could  be  made 
to  the  people  of  Findlay,  taken  as  a  whole,  by  an  iron  mill  which  lias  de- 
pleted the  common  store  of  fuel  to  the  amount  of  at  least  5,000,000,000 
«ubic  feet  during  the  last  four  years?  What  justice  is  there  in  giving 
away  this  vast  amount  of  stored  power,  equal  in  volume  to  200,000  tons 
of  Pittsburgh  coal,  to  one  manufacturer?  The  tax  pajers  of  the  town  are 
already  paying  a  heavy  burden  in  keeping  up  their  gas  supply,  and  when 
the  supply  shall  have  failed,  it  seems  probable  that  they  will  still  have  a 
half  million  dollars  of  debt  to  meet,  incurred  solely  on  the  account  of  sup- 
plying free  gas  to  manufacturers. 

The  great  gas  companies  have  not  sinned  in  this  way.  They  have 
understood  the  nature  and  value  of  the  gas  supply  from  the  beginning, 
and  thuir  constant  aim  and  purpose  has  been  to  convert  the  gas  into  gold. 
In  this  they  must  have  been  successful  to  a  high  degree.  The  business 
can  scarcely  be  other  than  extraordinarily  lucrative  when  a  great  city  is 
reached  by  a  pipe  line  that  draws  its  gas  from  prolific  territory.  But 
while  intent  on  making  money,  their  policy  has  tended  to  the  common 
good  in  this  respect,  that  they  have  been  disposed  to  save  the  gas  mainly 
for  household  use.  This  is  the  use  that  at  once  serves  the  community 
best  and  pays  the  gas  companies  best. 

Why  can  not  the  municipal  gas  boards  learn  from  the  experience 
ihat  has  accumulated  in  this  field?  For  the  wasteful  policy  that  they 


278  GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO. 

have  thus  far  maintained  they  are  not  altogether  to  blame,  for  there  has 
been  up  to  this  time  no  known  mode  for  determining  in  an  inexpensive 
way  the  actual  consumption  of  gas  in  the  various  industries  that  they 
have  undertaken  to  supply.  Happily  this  problem  has  now  been  solved, 
and  every  gas  board  can  learn  by  a  small  amount  of  trouble  how  much 
gas  it  is  bringing  into  the  town  by  its  lines,  and  also  the  several  principal 
uses  to  which  it  is  devoted.  What  remains  for  these  boards  is  to  make 
these  measurements  and  then  place  a  proper  price  upon  the  gas  that  they 
are  introducing,  and,  furthermore,  to  establish  as  far  as  their  obligations 
will  allow  uniform  rates  for  all  consumers.  Above  all  they  need  to  dis- 
own and  repudiate,  as  far  as  they  are  able,  the  unfortunate  and  demoraliz- 
ing policy  of  supplying  free  gas  to  manufacturers.  It  is  best  for  the  manu- 
facturers, it  is  best  for  the  several  industries  which  they  represent,  and  it 
is  best  for  the  towns,  that  all  shall  pay  their  own  bills. 

SUMMARY. 

Some  of  the  conclusions  to  which  the  facts  and  discussions  here- 
with presented  would  lead  us  may  be  summarized  as  follows: 

(1)  Natural  gas  finds  its  highest  and  most  valuable  use  as  domestic 
fuel.     It  is  here  that  it  does  the  greatest  good  to  the  greatest  number. 
In  all  our  dealings  with  it,  this  fact  should  be  kept  constantly  in  view. 
To  maintain  it  for  the  longest  period  for  this  service  is  our  highest  in: 
terest  in  relation  to  it. 

(2)  If  there  is  any  use  for  which  gas  should  be  sold  below  the  price 
of  the  fuel  which  it  supplants,  it  is  its  use  in  cooking  stoves.     The  less 
fortunate  members  of  the  communities  should  be  the  lavored  ones  in  this 
regard.     For  the  gas  used  in  heating  there  is  no  occasion  to  mark  the 
price  below  the  cost  of  coal ;  neither  is  there  any  justifiable  demand  for 
a  discount  on  gas  bills  increasing  according  to  the  number  of  fires  sup- 
plied.    If  a  sliding  scale  is  introduced  it  might,  perhaps,  better  be  made 
to  slide  the  other  way,  charging  consumption  beyond  the  average  at  a 
higher  rate. 

(3)  An  advance  in  price  on  the  part  of  all  municipal  corporations 
for  all  the  uses  that  the#  undertake  to  supply, 'is  their  proper  policy.    The 
price  at  which  they  have  furnished  it  hitherto  leads  to  undervaluing  and 
wasting  the  gas.     The  supply  will  do  the  towns  more  good  by  serving 
them  longer,  if  they  are  required  to  pay  a  higher  price  for  the  gas. 

(4)  All  gas  should  be  sold  by  measured  volume.     Meters  and  gauges 
ought  to  be  introduced  every-where.     No  adequate  motive  to  economy 
can  be  brought  to  bear  on  many  consumers  until  they  are  obliged  to  pay 
at  a  proper  rate  for  what  they  use. 


UTILIZATION    OF    GAS.  279 

(5)  Next  to  domestic  use,  the  use  of  gas  in  the  production  of  steam 
power  is  to  be  counted  the  most  suitable  application  of  it.    Comparatively 
small  amounts  of  it  are  required  for  this  purpose,  and  great  convenience 
and  economy  result  therefrom.     The  most  skillful  use  of  it  will  find  a 
rate  of  fifty  feet  to  1-horse  power  sufficient,  but  a  use  of  more  than  eighty 
feet  to  1-horse-power  should  not  be  allowed,  even  if  the  user  is  willing  to 
pay  for  it. 

(6)  Of  the  various  manufacturing  uses  in  which  the  gas  is  applied 
as  fuel  proper,  glass-making  has  probably  the  best  r'ghts.     It  contributes 
larger  returns  to  the  community  in  the  shape  of  wages  than  other  like 
industries.     While  its  introduction  into  northern  Ohio  has  been  greatly 
overdone,  and  while  much  of  it  has  been  accomplished  by  the  exercise  of 
a  mistaken  policy,  it  should  be  maintained  as  long  as  possible.     To  this 
end  economy  should  be  every-where  enforced.     The  window  glass  works 
might,  perhaps,  be  required  to  introduce  coal  into  their  furnaces  for  melt- 
ing, at  an  early  day,  reserving  gas  for  the  stages  of  blowing  and  flattening. 

(7)  From  certain  uses  to  which  gas  is  now  largely  applied  it  should 
be  at  once  entirely  withdrawn.     It  is  a  great  wrong  to  the  community  to 
allow  it  to  be  used  in  burning  common  building  brick  and  in  calcining 
limestone.     These  processes  consume  large  quantities  of  gas  and  make  no 
returns  except  to  their  owners.     For  these  uses  wood  and  coal  are  good 
enough. 

• 

The  industry  that  consumes  gas  in  by  far  the  largest  amount  is  iron 
working.  It  is  a  grievous  mistake  on  the  part  of  any  community  or  com- 
pany to  allow  a  rolling-mill  access  to  its  gas  field.  An  ordinary  mill  uses 
as  much  gas  every  day  as  several  thousands  of  families  would  consume, 
and  the  returns  to  the  common  good  by  such  an  application  are  small 
compared  with  any  other  ways  of  using  the  gas.  Even  though  a  rolling- 
mill  stands  ready  to  pay  as  much  per  thousand  feet  as  the  small  con- 
sumers pay  it  ought  not  to  be  supplied.  If  it  is  willing  to  do  this  it 
shows  that  there  is  not  enough  charged  for  the  gas.  It  may  be  to  the 
interest  of  the  gas  company  to  get  its  money  back  rapidly,  it  is  true,  but 
the  community  has  interests,  if  not  rights  as  well,  that  should  not  be 
overlooked  in  relation  to  this  supply.  The  State  interferes  when  an  oil 
well  is  left  without  being  plugged,  or  when  a  gas  well  is  allowed  to  blow 
into  the  air  without  use.  Why  ?  Because  these  precious  stocks  of  mobile 
power  are  fitted  to  do  good  to  great  numbers  of  the  people  and  no  man 
has  a  right  to  take  any  action  by  which  they  shall  be  needlessly  wasted. 
A  like  reason  could,  perhaps,  be  found  for  forbidding  entirely  the  use  of 
gas  for  the  rough  work  that  has  been  named  above. 

(8)  If  economy  is  every-where  insisted  on  and  practiced,  the  last 
days  of  natural  gas  in  Ohio  may  be  its  best  days.    If,  on  the  other  hand, 


2SO  GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO. 

the  wasteful  policy  that  is  now  so  largely  in  force  should  be  maintained, 
there  is  sure  to  be,  and  at  no  very  distant  day,  great  disappointment  and 
reaction  in  the  communities  that  have  obtained  it  and  that  have  been 
stimulated  by  its  acquisition  to  what  may  prove  an  unhealthful  activity. 

(9)  Natural  gas  is  merely  a  transient  phase  of  the  stored  power  of 
the  earth.     It  is  folly  to  talk  of  its  taking  anything  like  a  permanent 
place  in  the  work  of  the  world.     The  claim  that  it  can  do  so  springs  only 
from  enthusiasm  or  sciolism.     There  is,  in  reality,  but  little  of  it,  and 
this  little  is  found  in  but  very  limited  regions  and  can  not  last  long  when- 
ever its  utilization  is  undertaken  by  the  eager  and  masterful  activities  of 
.our  day. 

(10)  Natural  gas  has  a  very  important  work  to  do.     It  should  pre- 
pare the  world  for  something  much  better  than  itself.     It  is  giving  an 
.object  lesson  to  great  communities  as  to  the  advantage  of  gaseous  fuel, 
and  it  can  hardly  be  that  this  lesson' will  be  given  in  vain.     The  ex- 
emption from  the  soot  and  dust  inseparable  from  the  burning  of  bitumi- 
nous coal  in  our  cities  and  the  positive  addition  that  gaseous  fuel  makes 
to  the  comfort  and  convenience  of  the  entire  community  when  used,  as 
domestic  fuel  and  as  a  source  of  steam  power,  are  results  in  themselves  too 
valuable  to  be  abandoned  when  these  small  and  treacherous  stocks  of 
buried  power  are  exhausted.     The  conversion  of  the  coal  now  burned  in 
a  large  city  into  gas  before  being  used  would  result  in  an   immense 
economy  in  fuel,  besides  affording  the  incidental  advantages  alluded  to 
.above,  and  this  economy  of  stored  power  is  an  object  to  which  the  civil- 
ized world  will  soon  be  obliged  to  address  itself  in  good  earnest. 


PLATE  IV 


/////////////VW 


CHAPTER    VTI. 


THE  MEASUREMENT  OF  NATURAL  GAS, 

INCLUDING  GAS  WELLS,  PIPE  LINES,  SERVICE    PIPES,   ETC. 

BY  S.  W.  ROBINSON,  C.  E. 

PROFESSOR  OP  MECHANICAL  ENGINEERING,  OHIO  STATE  UNIVERSITY. 


The  object  of  the  present  chapter  is  to  set  forth  a  new  method  of  de- 
termining the  production  of  gas  wells  and  the  amount  of  gas  carried  by 
pipe  lines.  It  will  involve  a  description  of  the  instrument  employed,  a 
discussion  of  the  principles  involved  and  a  presentation  in  the  most  con- 
venient form  for  practical  use,  of  the  rules  and  tables  by  which  the  system 
is  applied. 

I.    THE  PITOT  TUBE  GAUGE. 

This  instrument  is  called  the  Pitot  Tube  Gauge  from  its  inventor,  Pi  tot, 
and  is  equally  remarkable  for  its  simplicity  and  accuracy  of  results.  It  is 
applicable  only  for  measurement  while  the  fluid  measured  is  in  motion, 
as  for  gas,  air,  water,  flowing  in  pipes,  orifices,  rivers,  wind  currents, 
etc.;  in  short,  all  cases  of  fluid  streams,  and  the  principle  is  that  the  instru- 
ment gives  the  velocity  of  the  current  at  the  point  of  its  application  which 
velocity,  multiplied  by  the  sectional  area  of  the  stream,  gives  the  volume 
of  flow. 

This  is  a  perfect  instrument,  if  we  may  call  one  perfect  when  its  prac- 
tical results  agree  with  the  theoretical  ones,  while  at  the  same  time  the 
instrument  itself  may  be  either  fine  or  rude  in  construction. 

Elaborate  experiments  have  been  made  to  determine  the  co-efficient  of 
reduction  or  multiplying  factor  by  which  to  reduce  the  measured  velocities 
to  the  actual  ones,  and  always  for  water,  air  or  gas  with  the  result,  1.  for 
multiplier.  On  this  point  see  Van  Nostrand's  Eng.  Mag.,  Vol.  XXXV 
"  Measurement  of  Gas  Wells  ;  "  Vol.  VI,  Ohio  Geological  Report ;  and  Morin's 


282  GEOLOGY   OF   OHIO. 

Hydraulique,  p.  136.  Several  careful  comparisons  of  measurement  of  this 
instrument  with  the  Westinghouse  Meter  and  with  pipe  line  measure- 
ments have  shown  results  varying  within  a  small  per  cent. 

FORMS  OF  THE  INSTRUMENT. 

1st.  Stream  with  free  exit.  Figures.  1  and  2,  Plate  4,  are  given  to  illus- 
strate  the  simplest  forms  of  the  instrument  as  used  at  the  gas  well  mouth, 
or  at  the  exit  mouth  of  any  pipe,  or  in  fact  any  discharge  orifice  such  as  an 
opening  in  the  side  of  a  tank  from  which  the  flow  is  free  into  air. 

In  Fig.  1,  B  is  a  tube  which  for  convenience  is  bent  to  an  angle  so 
that  its  mouth  end  B  can  readily  be  placed  as  required,  square  in  the 
stream  of  gas  flowing  from  A.  A  piece  of  rubber  tubing  C  connects  B 
with  a  glass  tube  D.  The  opposite  end  of  D  is  connected  with  rubber  tub- 
ing E  to  a  second  glass  tube  F.  All  thjs  tubing  is  open  free  throughout. 

In  using  this  instrument  charge  it  with  water  or  mercury,  and  hold  it 
as  shown,  so  that  the  difference  of  level  (DF  =  h)  can  be  read  off.  This 
value  of  h  in  inches  is  to  be  found  in  the  first  column  of  the  tables  when 
mercury  charges  the  instrument  or  in  the  second  column  for  water. 

Fig.  2  is  intended  for  the  case  where  the  pressure  produced  by  the 
impact  of  the  stream  against  the  open  end  B  is  too  great  to  be  con- 
veniently measured  by  water  or  mercury,  the  pressure  being  here  measured 
by  a  pressure  gauge.  The  size  of  mouth  B  is  immaterial.  In  some 
cases  the  pressure  in  Fig.  2  has  been  observed  as  high  as  fifty  pounds  per 
square  inch. 

2d.  Stream  enclosed.  In  Fig.  3,  Plate  4,  is,  given  the  form  of  tip  and 
of  instrument  to  be  used  in  such  cases  as  measuring  the  velocity  of  flow 
at  any  point  in  a  pipe  line  where  the  pressure  of  the  flowing  gas  is  above 
or  even  below  that  of  the  air. 

This  instrument  has  been  used  in  pipes  where  the  pressure  was  above 
100. pounds  per  square  inch  without  inconvenience,  or  detraction  from 
accuracy  of  results. 

In  this  form,  Fig.  3,  the  tip  A  B  is  seen  to  have  two  openings,  the  Pitot 
tube  mouth  proper,  A,  the  same  as  in  Figures  1  or  2,  and  besides  this, 
the  lateral  opening  at  B  in  the  smooth  uniform  side  of  the  tip.  In  ordi- 
nary cases  of  pipe  lines,  B  may  be  at  some  distance  from  A,  even  in  a 
separate  piece  of  tube.  But  for  convenience  of  application  to  pipe  lines  the 
double  tip  is  made  so  that  it  may  be  screwed  air-tight  into  a  single 
f-inch  pipe  size  hole.  The  end  A  B  is  then  bent  into  an  L  of  90°,  so 
that  A  may  be  made  to  face  up  stream  to  catch  the  current,  while  for  B 
the  gas  moves  past  without  increasing  or  diminishing  the  pressure  in 
B  as  due  to  motion  of  gas,  while  yet  the  standing  or  static  pressure  ii 


THE    MEASUREMENT   OF    NATURAL    GAS.  283 

transmitted  into  B,  Thus  the  pressure  exerted  at  A,  when  the  instru- 
ment is  in  use  on  a  pipe  line,  is  equal  the  static  pressure  in  the  pipe  plus 
the  pressure  due  to  impact,  or  to  velocity  of  current,  while  at  B  the  static 
pressure  only  is  exerted.  The  static  pressure  is  that  which  we  measure 
by  a  pressure  gauge  placed  on  the  pipe  line.  It  is  apparent  from  Fig.  & 
that,  the  pressure  at  A  is  transmitted  to  C,  and  that  at  B  to  D. 

Now,  to  complete  the  instrument,  a  gauge  in  the  form  of 'a  U  tube 
of  glass  containing  water  or  mercury  may  be  placed  at  C  D.  Then  the  C 
side  of  the  water  or  mercury  in  the  U  will  stand  lowest,  and  the  difference 
of  level  will  be  the  head  due  to  velocity.  This  head  for  inches  of  mercury 
is  to  be  found  in  the  first  column  of  the  tables,  for  water  in  the  second 
column,  and  for  alcohol  in  the  third.  It  will  be  rare  if  ever  a  higher 
pressure  than  ten  inches  of  mercury  will  be  observed  on  any  pipe  line  or 
service  pipe,  so  that  it  is  not  necessary  to  provide  high  pressure  gauges  for 
C  and  D. 

The  pressure  observed  in  Figs.  1  and  2,  or  that  at  C,  Fig.  3,  in  excess 
of  that  at  D,  is  produced  by  the  swift  moving  gas  driving  against  the 
mouth  B  and  being  there  brought  to  a  stop.  By  the  theory  of  the  instru- 
ment the  gas  compressed  into  the  tube  B  would,  by  being  permitted  to 
flow  out  again  against  the  same"  surrounding  pressure,  attain  the  same 
velocity  as  that  in  the  stream  from  which  it  was  brought  to  rest.  Not 
only  is  this  realized  perfectly  by  experiment  for  the  pressures,  but  the  like 
holds  relative  to  temperatures 

In  the  case  of  gas  wells  the  forms  of  instrument,  shown  in  Figs.  1 
and  2,  Plate  4,  are  employed,  and  the  pressure  observed  is  sometimes  called 
the  "  open  pressure." 

In  case  of  pipe  lines,  service  pipes,  etc.,  Fig.  3  is  employed. 

APPLICATION  TO  GAS  WELLS. 

VOLUME  OF  FLOW  AT  A  WELL  MOUTH  OR  AT  AN  ORIFICE. 

This  is  the  simple  case  where  the  static  pressure  of  the  jet  or  stream 
is  that  of  the  atmosphere,  at  the  point  of  observation  with  the  Pitot  Tube 
Gauge,  since,  for  this,  the  mouth  B  of  the  tube  should  be  placed  at  the 
plane  of  the  orifice  A ;  at  which  point  the  internal  pressure  of  the  flowing 
gas  will  be  that  of  the  air  into  which  the  gas  flows.  The  simple  form  of  the 
apparatus  is  then  all  that  is  required,  as  shown  in  Figs.  1  and  2,  consisting 
of  a  single  mouth-opening,  at  the  end  of  a  pipe,  presented  square  with 
the  jet,  and  connected  air  tight  with  the  pressure  gauge  or  manometer. 
The  size  of  the  openings  A  and  B  Figs.  1,  2  or  3,  is  immaterial  provided 
they  are  not  so  large  as  to  offer  obstruction,  to  the  current,  and  yet  not  so 
small  as  to  become  clogged  by  particles  flowing  in  the  current. 


284  GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO. 

Then  the  formula  giving  the  cubic  feet  of  gas  per  day  of  twenty-foui 
hours  of  uniform  flow  (See  Ohio  Geological  Report,  Vol.  VI,  p.  560-580)  is 


("  0.29         ") 

F=1462250d'3  (P-  +146\        _1 

(\      14.6      /  3 


Where  d  =  diameter  of  well  mouth  or  of  orifice  in  inches,  and  p  = 
the  gauge  pressure  in  pounds  per  square  inch. 

In  using  the  formula,  correct  for  temperature  according  to  foot  note  to 
Table  I,  also  for  density  sometimes  considerable. 

From  this  formula  Table  I  was  made  out,  pressure  gauge  values  being 
found  in  third  column. 

When  the  water  gauge  is  employed  take,  in  formula  (1.), 

_  h' 
P    27.5 

In  this  case  h'  =  inches  by  water  gauge,  and  is  to  be  found  in  second 
column  of  Table  I. 

When  the  mercury  gauge  is  employed  giving  h  inches  of  mercury 
take,  in  the  formula, 


Here  h"  -  -  the  inches  of  mercury,  and  is  to  be  found  in  first  column 
of  table. 

These  formulas  may  be  used  when  the  experiment  gives  data  that  lie 
outside  of  Table  I. 

VELOCITY  OF  FLOW. 

To  find  the  velocity  of  the  gas  in  feet  per  second  divide  the  quan- 
tity discharged  per  second  by  the  area  of  the  orifice  in  square  feet.  To  find 
the  quantity  per  second  divide  the  quantity  per  day  by  86400. 

PRECAUTION  TO  BE  OBSERVED. 

In  applying  the  instrument,  Figs.  1  or  2,  to  gas  wells,  the  mouth  B 
may  be  held  a  little  down  into  A,  in  case  the  latter  is  a  pipe  without  fittings. 
But  sometimes  a  T,  or  a  reducer,  etc.,  perhaps  including  a  valve,  may  be 
on  the  end  of  A.  In  such  case  the  end  B  should  be  placed  at  several  points 
in  the  open  end  of  A,  and  the  mean  of  observed  results  taken  For  in- 
stance, suppose  a  T  be  placed  with  its  outlet  horizontal,  but  plugged. 
The  cavity  in  the  fitting  under  the  plug  will  cause  serious  eddvings  and 
the  pressure  taken  at  any  one  point  can  not  be  relied  upon.  But  with 
normal  flow  the  tip  should  be  held  at  about  the  first  fourth  of  the  di- 
ameter, and  if  at  the  center  multiply  by  .97  to  account  for  the  so  called 
velocity  curve  which  for  orifices  is  flatter  than  for  pipes. 


THE    MEASUREMENT   OF    NATURAL    GAS.      »  285 

It  would  be  improper  in  this  case  to  insert  B  to  such  depth  into  A  as 
to  go  below  the  fitting,  because  the  fitting  will  modify  etatic  pressure  by 
reason  of  its  resistance  to  flow.  A  larger  pipe  than  A  below  the  fitting 
would  have  a  less  mean  velocity  than  A,  and  yet  give  a  higher  pressure 
reading,  except  the  double  tip,  Fig.  3,  be  used,  which  may,  in  fact,  always 
be  employed  where  the  difference  of  pressure  in  C  D  is  not  too  great.to  be 
measured  by  that  gauge. 

When  the  exit  mouth  is  not  fair,  a  piece  of  pipe  three  or  four  feet 
long  may  be  screwed  on,  and  B,  Figs.  1  and  2  applied  at  its  end,  where 
the  conditions  of  the  stream  will  now  be  practically  normal.  Or  if  more 
convenient  the  instrument,  Fig.  3,  may  be  placed  on  the  main  pipe  lead- 
ing up  from  the  gas  well  by  tapping  into  that  pipe  in  the  usual  way. 

SERVICE  CAPACITY  OF  GAS  WELLS. 

When  gas  flows  from  a  gas  well  into  free  air,  through  a  wide  open 
mouth,  the  discharge  will  be  in  excess  of  that,  as  it  usually  flows  in  service 
into  a  pipe  line  under  a  back  pressure  of  200  or  300  pounds. 

To  determine  the  service  capacity  or  am  mnt  of  gas  that  would  be  given 
off  under  working  conditions  of  being  closed  in  and  discharging  gas  into  a 
pipe  line,  an  outlet  into  free  air  should  be  made  from  the  well  by  a  branch 
pipe  and  valve.  Then  open  this  valve  and  also  cut  off  the  pipe  line 
for  the  moment  of  experiment  and  train  this  branch  pipe  valve  till 
the  pressure  of  the  well  is  up  again  to  the  working  pressure  of  the  well 
when  in  service,  though  now  flowing  into  free  air.  Now  apply  the  Pitot 
gauge  as  in  Fige.  1  or  2,  and  make  the  measurement.  The  branch  pipe  in 
this  experiment  should  be  several  feet  in  length  to  prevent  abnormal 
eddy  ings,  etc.,  and  the  same  pipe  would  do  for  measuring  the  flow  of  well 
at  all  pressures.  Or  perhaps  a  more  convenient  way  to  measure  the  service 
flow  of  the  well  would  be  to  put  the  complete  gauge  instrument,  Fig.  3, 
upon  the  pipe  leading  from  the  well  to  the  main  pipe  line.  This  pipe 
might  be  tapped  for  receiving  the  instrument,  Fig.  3,  at  any  time,  or 
indeed  such,  instrument  might  remain  there  permanently. 

Wherever  the  instrument,  Fig.  3,  is  applied,  the  pipe  on  the  upstream 
side  of  the  instrument  should  be  free  of  fLtings,  bends,  etc.,  for  a  distance 
of  some  fifteen  or  twenty  diameters  of  pipe  to  insure  normal  conditions 
of  flow  at  the  tips  A  B. 

In  attempting  to  use  Table  I  it  often  happens  that  the  data  come 
between  values  given  in  the  table  when  interpolation  must  be  resorted  to,, 
for  accurate  results. 


286 


GEOLOGY    OF   OHIO. 


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THE    MEASUREMENT   OF    NATURAL    GAS. 


28; 


§ 

a 


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said  Xq  aanssa 


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aju 


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-isni  £q  ain.ssa.id  paAaasqo 


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H  ^3 


288  GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO. 

Examples  illustrating  uee  of  Table  I : 

1st  example.     The  Karg  well,  Findlay,  Ohio : 

Observed  gauge  pressure  =  15.  Ibs.  by  Pitot  tube. 
Temperature  flowing  gas  =  32°  Fahr. 
Temperature  storage          =  50°  Fahr. 
Diameter  of  exit  mouth    =  4  inches. 

By  Table  I,  V.  day  =  11,107,500  (interpolating)  for  a  temperature  of 
storage  at  32°.  Correction  for  temperature  of  storage  at  50°  is  3  66  per 
cent.,  =  406,534,  which  added,  gives  V.  day  =  11,514,034  cubic  feet  per 
day. 

2d  example.     The  Briggs  well,  Findlay,  0. : 

Observed  gauge  pressure  =  6.5  ft>s.  by  Pitot  tube. 
Temperature  flowing  gas  =  32°  Fahr. 
Temperature  storage  -  50°  Fahr. 

Diameter  of  exit  mouth   —  2J  inches. 

By  Table  I,  V.  day  =  2;510,700  cubic  feet  found  by  interpolating 
between  1,959,400  for  a  2-inch  mouth,  and  3,062.000  for  a  2^-inch  mouth. 
j^pThe  correction  multiplier  is  3.66  per  cent,  by  foot  note.  The  correc- 
tion is  then  91,891  cubic  feet,*and  the  corrected  value  V.  day"==  2,602,591 
cubic  feet  per  day. 

3d  example.     The  Jones  well,  Findlay,  0. : 

Observed  gauge  pressure  =  3.79  inches  by  water  gauge. 

Temperature  flowing  gas  =  32°  Fahr. 

Temperature  storage          —  50°  Fahr. 

Diameter  of  exit  mouth        =  3f  inches. 

By  Table  I,  V.  day  =  871,658  cubic  feet,  found  by  interpolating 
under  d  =  3  inches,  between  observed  pressures  of  3  and  4  inches  ;  also, 
by  interpolating  likewise  under  d  =  3£  inches,  and  then  interpolating 
between  the  quantities  thus  obtained  for  the  diameter  3|  inches.  Then 
the  multiplier  is  3.66  per  cent.,  giving  a  correction  +  31,90:5,  and  the  final 
results  for  a  storage  temperature  of  50°,  of  V.  day  =  903,561  cubic  feet 
per  day. 

APPLICATION  TO  PIPE   LINES. 

The  recent  rapidly  increasing  demand  for  natural  gas  at  points  com- 
paratively remote  from  the  gas  well  districts  has  led  to  the  piping  of  gas 
to  such  great  distances  as  to  render  a  knowledge  of  the  capacity  of  long 
pipes  for  conducting  gas  a  necessity. 

It  has  been  slated  that  the  quantities  of  gas  transferred  in  these  long 
pipes  considerably  exceeds  the  amount  determined  by  the  ordinary 


THE    MEASUREMENT   OF    NATURAL   GAS. 


289 


formulas  for  calculating  gas-flow  in  pipes.  This  is  probably  owing  to  the 
fact  recently  determined  by  trial  that  the  co-efficient  of  friction  of  the  gas 
under  the  conditions  of  flow  of  high  pr  ssures  and  comparatively  low 
velocities,  is  much  lower  than  is  usually  allowed,  indeed  for  some: 
observed  values  less  than  half  that  value. 

This  one  fast  makes  it  very  desirable  that  some  reliable  and  con- 
venient method  of  measurement  be  brought  forward  where  the  friction 
consideration  be  eliminated.  A  meter  of  sufficient  capacity  to  measure  a 
main  pipe  line  would  be  very  expensive,  besides  being  expensive  to 
apply. 

MEASURING  PIPE  LINES  WITH  THE  PITOT  TUBE  GAUGE. 

In  this  gauge  we  find  the  above  mentionel  desired  qualities  in  the 
highest  d»  grte,  such  as  small  cost",  ease  of  application,  and  accuracy  of 
results.  The  instrument  is  furnished  ready  for  attaching  to  a  pipe 
Hue  by  drilling  an  1  tapping  a  f-inch  p;pe  size  hole  in  the  line,  and  ap- 
plicable to  a  horizontal  or  vertical  pipe.  This  gtuge  is  shown  in  Fig  3, 
Plate  4,  as  applied  to  a  pipe  line,  A  B  being  the  double  mouth  tip,  and 
C  D  being  the  10-inch  U  tube  gmge  for  water,  alcohol  or  mercury. 

By  the  theory  of  this  instrument  we  have  the  velocity  of  flow 


(2) 


Where  g  is  the  acceleration  of  gravity  =  32.2  and  H  the  head,  in  feet, 
due  the  velocity.  As  high  as  four  inches  of  mercury  and  500  feet  velocity 
have  been  observed  in  a  by  pass  with  a  fall  of  pressure  in  the  pipe  of 
about  half  a  pound  per  foot  length  of  pipe.  Probably  a  higher  value  of 
head  will  rarely  be  observed,  so  that  a  10  inch  gauge  is  ample  ior  all 
practical  cases. 

In  the  above  formula  H  is  in  terms  of  the  gas  flowing.  If  h=the 
observed  head  in  the  water  giuge  in  inches,  the  velocity  of  gas  in  the  pipe 
will  be 


v=8±  6  J 


k- 


15 


(3) 


p  +  15 

Where  p  is  the  gauge  pressure  of  the  gas  flowing  in  the  pipe  pounds 
per  square  inch. 

The  cubic  feet  of  gas  per  hour  flowing  in  the  pipe  will  be 


V per  hour  =  169QcPx/A(i  +JL) 
\     \          15  ' 


19 


29O  GEOLOGY   OF   OHIO. 

Where  d  =  inside  diameter  of  pipe  in  inches  and  h  =  inches  of  water 
and  in  which  the  temperature  of  flawing  gas  is  taken  at  40°  F.,  and 
that  of  storage  at  50°. 

By  aid  of  this  formula  Table  II  was  calculated. 

When  mercury  is  used  in  the  U  gauge,  look  in  the  first  column  of  the 
table  for  h;  for  water,  the  second  column  ;  and  for  alcohol  in  the  third. 

At  the  top  of  the  table  four  lines  are  given  in  which  to  find  the  ob- 
served static  pressure  of  gas  in  the  pipe — the  top  Ime  if  the  pressure 
gauge  be  mercury;  the  second  if  it  be  water;  the  third  if  the  pressure  is 
given  in  ounces  and  in  the  fourth  if  in  pounds. 

The  table  gives  the  cubic  feet  per  hour  for  a  one-inch  pipe.  For 
another  size  of  pipe  use  the  multiplier  from  the  supplemental  table  at  the 
right  to  change  the  cubic  feet  for  the  one  inch  pipe  to  that  for  the  actual  size. 

PRECAUTIONS  IN  USE  OF  INSTRUMENT. 

In  selecting  a  place  on  the  pipe  line  at  which  to  apply  the  instrument 
it  is  important  that  the  pipe  be«  uniform  and  continuous  for  some  ten  or 
fifteen  diameters  up  stream  from  the  instrument,  also  at,  and  for  a  few 
diameters  below  it,  in  order  to  secure  normal  conditions  ol  flow. 

For  instance  an  elbow  causes  serious  eddyings,  and  a  greater  velocity 
at  one  side  of  the  pipe  than  the  other  and  the  tip  of  the  instrument 
located  in  either  side  will  not  give  fair  results. 

A  T  fitting,  even  if  it  be  plugged,  when  near  the  tip,  on  upstream 
side  will  vitiate  the  indications.  Irregularities  of  conduit  on  the  down- 
stream side  of  tip  is  of  far  less  importance  than  if  on  the  upstream  side, 
and  may  be  allowed  to  come  much  nearer  the  tip. 

When  locating  the  instrument  in  a  short  portion  of  pipe,  of  say 
fifteen  diameters  between  fittings,  it  should  be  placed  much  nearest  the 
down  stream  end  to  secure  the  best  conditions  above  named. 

Great  care  should  be  taken  to  see  that  the  connections  through  the 
instrument  are  fre->  of  obstructions,  and  perfectly  free  from  leaks  at  the 
joints  where  the  instrument  is  connected  up.  In  most  cases  the  instru- 
ment may  be  tested  for  this  on  the  spot  after  connected  up,  and  before 
applied  to  the  pipe;  by  turning  the  cocks  tight  near  top  of  instrument, 
and  placing  the  tip  ends  A  and  then  B  in  the  mouth  in  succession  and 
drawing  by  suction.  It  is  very  important  that  all  joints  be  perfectly  air- 
tight. One  indication  of  free  action  of  instrument  is  the  pulsations  of 
the  column.  The  stream  of  any  fluid  in  a  p>pe  is  accompanied  with 
more  or  less  of  whirling  motion,  the  mouth  of  tip  being  thus  more  fairly 
struck  at  one  instant  of  flow  than  another,  causing  a  momentary  rise  of 
column  and  vise  versa. 


THE    MEASUREMENT   OF    NATURAL    GAS.  29! 

The  indications  of  the  U  tube  should  be  averaged  for  the  instant  of 
observation  by  noting  an  intermediate  value  ^among  the  pulsations. 
Several  such  values  may  be  read  off  and  the  mean  of  all  taken  for  the 
correct  result. 

In  cases  where  the  flow  of  gas  is  not  uniform  which  is  most  apt  to  be 
the  case  in  service  pipes  and  branches  about  a  city,  the  gas  supplied  for 
the  day  should  be  determined  by  repeated  readings,  taken  every  hour,  or 
perhaps  oftener  according  to  accuracy  sought. 


GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO. 


TABLE  IL 

FOB  THE  PITOT  TUBE  GAUGE,  GIVING  CUBIC  FEET  OP  GAS  PER  HOUR  OF  UNIFORM 
RE  AND  SPECIFIC  GRAVITY,  O.6.*    THE  TEMPERATURE  OF 


X 

4)        a; 

-_  i, 

-S 

S  &•§ 

0)  ?"? 

P^3 
4)  ?   *" 

0. 

.63 

126 

1.91 

2.57. 

3.82 

5.07 

7.65 

10.11 

20.22 

30.37 

CJ  *—    — 

/•:   **   " 

.c  T  5 

r    QC  ''" 
•J-         .^ 

0. 

8.6 

17.2 

26. 

35. 

52. 

69. 

104. 

1*8. 

275. 

413. 

-2  ^^ 

£  (.60 

•S'c  hi 

0. 

.5 

10. 

15. 

20. 

30. 

40. 

60. 

80. 

160. 

240. 

III 

|H 

0. 

0.31 

0.625 

0.94 

1.25. 

1.875 

25 

3.75 

5 

10 

15 

.02 

.025 

239. 

242. 

244. 

247. 

219. 

254 

259. 

2C8. 

276 

S09 

339. 

.04 

.05 

323. 

342. 

345. 

353. 

359. 

3«6. 

879. 

391. 

487 

479. 

.06 

.075 

4  If. 

419. 

423. 

428! 

432. 

440. 

448. 

46i. 

479. 

5  5. 

58  6. 

.08 

.10 

479 

484. 

493. 

498. 

5(8. 

Bi7, 

.'35. 

653. 

618. 

677. 

JO 

5:5. 

541. 

546. 

552. 

557. 

668. 

578. 

598. 

091. 

7.7. 



.15 

!l87 

65o 

662. 

609. 

676. 

690. 

695. 

7o8. 

73X. 

757 

840. 

927. 

.20 

.2o 

757. 

705 

772. 

780. 

787. 

.    802. 

818. 

846. 

874. 

977 

1,1,70. 

.25 

.312 

840. 

855. 

863. 

87*. 

880. 

897. 

9  4 

946. 

577. 

1,093 

1  15)7. 

.30 

.375 

927 

930. 

946. 

5-55. 

905. 

l.'Ol 

1,1-36. 

1,070. 

J,  1-7. 

.40 

.50 

l,07o. 

1  ('81 

1,092 

1,103. 

1,114. 

1,13ft! 

1,156. 

1,21.1. 

1  ,235. 

1  ,882. 

15!  3! 

.51 

.62,v 

1,1516. 

1  .209. 

1,223. 

1,2:3 

1,242. 

1  2i  9. 

1,25-2. 

1.K81. 

]  692. 



.60 

.75 

1,311. 

1  ,32*. 

1.351. 

1,304. 

1,401. 

l!468'. 

U92. 

1,854. 

.80 

1.00 

1.513. 

1.530. 

1546! 

]    f  gt  l_ 

1  ,575. 

10(5! 

1,635. 

1  61-2. 

1/747! 

1.5154 

2,140. 

1.1.0 

125 

1.692. 

1,709. 

1  ,7*7. 

1,744! 

1,761. 

1  75)5 

1.8*8. 

1,892. 

1,954 

2,185. 

2,393. 

1.2 

1.50 

1,853 

1  ,87  1  . 

1875. 

1  .91  1 

1.9  9. 

1,%6. 

2,002. 

2,076. 

2,14'  . 

2,:  ,513 

2,021. 

.10 

1.4 

1.75 

2,U<  2. 

2,1  '25 

2,123. 

2.064. 

2084. 

2,123. 

2,162. 

2,.  '40. 

2.312. 

2,585 

2831. 

.12 

1.6 

200 

2,  '.40. 

2,108. 

2,116 

2,'.(  6. 

2,228. 

2,270. 

2,312. 

2  393 

2.47  . 

2,703. 

fa  027. 

.15 

18 

225 

2,270 

2,  291. 

2,3'.  4. 

2,340. 

2.36:<. 

2.4C8 

2.454 

2.538. 

2621. 

2,931. 

3  210. 

.15 

2.0 

25 

2,393. 

2,4i  9. 

2456. 

2,466. 

2490. 

2538. 

2.585. 

2,676. 

2  703. 

3,189. 

3,384. 

J8 

2.5 

3.12 

2,675. 

2,7(,2. 

2.7,10. 

2.7.:  8. 

2.7M. 

'.  837. 

2,8  J<0. 

2,97r«. 

3.09 

3,45  .. 

3.785. 

.22 

3.0 

3.75 

2.5»31 

*,9iS. 

3  1  00. 

K  ,(  '2  1  . 

3.050. 

3,1(8. 

3,106. 

3277 

3384 

;i,784. 

4  '44. 

.29 

40 

5.-0 

3,*84. 

34i9. 

3459. 

3,487. 

3.522. 

3589. 

3055. 

3.798. 

3.907. 

4,309. 

4.78.6. 

.37 

5.0 

625 

3784. 

3.82.'. 

3,>-67 

3900. 

3,938. 

4.0X1. 

4,'  87. 

4,2:0 

4,369. 

48-5. 

5  *51. 

.44 

6.0 

75 

4,145. 

4,185. 

4  237. 

4,272. 

4,  3  IS. 

4,396. 

4.477. 

4  643. 

4.786 

5,351. 

5>6L. 

.69 

8.0 

10.0 

4.786. 

4  ,*:  8. 

4,886. 

4,933. 

4918 

5  076. 

5,  69. 

5,^51. 

6,5*6 

6,179. 

6796. 

.74 

10.0 

125 

5.H57. 

6,407. 

546  . 

5,520. 

551.9 

5,077 

5.780. 

5,980. 

6,178 

6,5,08. 

7,507. 

.88 

12 

15. 

5.801. 

5917. 

55180. 

6,042 

6,100. 

6.216. 

6,331. 

6,r.65. 

6,'68. 

7,167. 

8  289. 

1.10 

16. 

18.75 

6,553. 

6,134 

6  7*4. 

6  755. 

6  91  0. 

6.5»fO. 

7,079. 

7,K27 

7.507. 

8,461. 

9.268. 

147 

*0. 

25. 

7,507. 

7610. 

7,753 

7.79H. 

7878. 

8.1  25. 

8  174 

8,40'l  . 

8.737. 

9,770. 

10,  700. 

1.84 

25. 

HI.  25 

8461. 

8,544. 

8061. 

8,721. 

8  802. 

8  972. 

9,138. 

9,460. 

9.708. 

109*5. 

11,970. 

2.21 

30. 

37.5 

9,'.  68. 

9354. 

9,488. 

9553. 

9  (345 

9,829 

10,OiO. 

10,805. 

l(-,7(i(> 

1  1  905. 

13,1'  5. 

2.9i 

40. 

500 

107.--. 

10,815. 

10940. 

11  030 

1,440. 

1  1  ,%0 

11.500. 

12.010. 

12,3  5. 

3,8.0. 

I5.1o0. 

3.68 

f>0. 

6>.5 

1   ,965. 

12.1  90. 

12.230. 

12,330. 

12.450. 

12.690. 

12,950 

13,380. 

13.814. 

15,45U. 

10.9.0. 

442 

60 

7)5 

1?  i(J6. 

13,233. 

13,41'0. 

13,510. 

13.640. 

'3900. 

14.160 

I4,08o 

1513'  . 

16,9.0. 

18535. 

6.15 

70. 

875 

14,160 

14.3(0 

14,480. 

14,590. 

14,73. 

1ft,OH'. 

15,290. 

15803. 

'6350. 

18,280. 

200*0. 

6.89 

80. 

100. 

15,180. 

15300. 

15450. 

15,000. 

15  750 

16.150. 

16  3..0. 

16,9.0. 

17,474. 

ll)r>40. 

2l,4('5. 

6.62 

90. 

1125 

16,'  50. 

16221'. 

16,405. 

16545. 

10705 

17,020. 

17,340. 

1798u. 

1>,535 

-072o. 

22,700. 

7.36 

100. 

125. 

I0.5»20. 

171(0 

17,270. 

17,440. 

17610. 

17.5MO. 

18,2>0. 

18,l'20. 

19  537. 

21,845. 

23,'.  30. 

8.10 

110. 

137.5 

17,750. 

17,'.i20. 

18,410. 

18,29,i. 

18,470. 

18.820. 

19,170. 

19860. 

2u49o. 

*2,910. 

25.KO. 

*To  change  the  result  by  this  table  to  that  for  any  other  specific  gravity  than  0.6  multiply  by 


dp.  gr.gas. 


THE    MEASUREMENT   OF    NATURAL   GAS. 


293 


TABLE  II. 

FLOW  THROUGH   A  ONE-INCH   PlPE  LlNE,   THE   MEASURED  VOLUME  BEING   AS  AT  AlJt 

STORAGE  BEING  50°  F.,  AND  OF  FLOWING  GAS  40°  F. 


ll\    A  | 

50.55 

60.63 

1 

Gau  re 

40  41 

82>! 

—  inches  of  (v>lumn  h  j  vra.t.  -r  puii^e.     

of  e-w 

«2o! 

4-0! 

48). 

560. 

640 

8)0. 

960. 

1,120. 

1^8). 

1,610. 

=  ounces.. 

"  flow'gin 

20 

25 

30 

35 

40 

50 

60 

70 

80 

100 

=  pounds. 

the  pipe 

J 

line. 

SO'*. 

392. 

415. 

437. 

458 

498. 

B85 

569. 

692. 

663. 

For  any  pipe. 

517. 

55  i. 

586. 

618. 

648. 

704. 

756. 

806 

852. 

917. 

63!. 

680. 

718 

757. 

794. 

863. 

927. 

9S7. 

1,06  {. 

1,148. 

Multioli^rs  for  pipes 

7U. 

782. 

829. 

874. 

916. 

996 

1,070. 

1,139 

1.201 

1,325. 

larger  than  one  inch. 

818 

8^4 

927. 

977 

1  ,025 

1,114. 

1,196. 

1  ,271. 

1,347. 

1  ,482 



1,011 

1.070. 

1,135. 

1,196. 

1,255. 

1,361. 

1460. 

1,56  '. 

1,649 

1,814. 

Multiply  cubic  feet 

1,1^6 

1  236. 

1,3  U. 

1,38  1. 

1,419 

1,576. 

1,6s)  2. 

1,802. 

1,904. 

'2,0  16. 

for  one  inc 

i  pip>-  by 

1,382. 

1.465 

1,544. 

1,6  :0. 

1,7"! 

1.8D2. 

2,013. 

2.121). 

2,343. 

value  in  t 

lis  table 

l!4<U 

1514. 

16  '5. 

1,692. 

1  775. 

1,92?. 

2,-  '72. 

2,206. 

2,332 

2.566. 

opposite  right  size  of 

1.655. 

1,7  1< 

1,854. 

1,9">4. 

2,049. 

2,'228. 

2.59:5. 

2518. 

2,693. 

2963. 

pip 

i. 

1  ,<<2  '. 

1,"54 

2.072. 

2,184. 

2291. 

2.49  >. 

2,675. 

2,818 

3.011. 

3.313. 

2.002 
23'  2. 
218% 

2,  '40. 
2,471. 
2,763. 

2.270 
2(121. 
2.931. 

'2.395. 
2.76  !. 
3,0-9. 

2.510. 
2,898. 
3,210. 

2,728. 
3,'50. 
3,522. 

2,930. 
3/7S2 

3.120 
3.602. 
4,02s. 

3,298. 
3,8  '8. 
4  256. 

3650. 
4.191. 
4,686. 

Diam'r. 

Vlultiplier. 

O  G'l  t 

3,'V>7 

3,210. 

3  >8  1 

3.5(0 

3*58. 

4,144 

441  •>. 

4,664 

5,133 

£l  0  >     . 

3.058. 

3,2  i9 

3.46S. 

3,699! 

3851 

4  168. 

4,476. 

4.76S. 

5,0)6. 

5,54l! 

Inches. 

3.t  T, 

3707. 

3.90-!. 

4,100. 

4.451. 

4,784. 

5,ii9rt. 

5.3  4. 

5.926 

1. 

T 

s'i  ') 

3707. 

3,032. 

4.144. 

4318. 

4724. 

5.076. 

544. 

5  700. 

6,286. 

1M 

IJ»M 

3  fi5\ 

3  9'  '8 

4  144 

4,3K 

4.5*14. 

4980. 

5,352. 

5  6J6. 

6.o;o. 

6,6  6. 

'5=<>V 

4.087. 

4,368. 

4.636. 

4.  884. 

4.724. 

5.568. 

5  080. 

6.36S 

6,732. 

7,408. 

9 

4^ 

"7± 

4.177. 

47<4. 

5,184. 

5,35  2. 

5,612. 

6  100. 

65.2. 

6,976. 

7376. 

8,1  1  ». 

2V 

6.25=   '^ 

5.1  <?9 

55J4. 

5,^6). 

6.176. 

6,480. 

7,011 

7,563. 

8/156. 

8516. 

9  370. 

3  2 

9. 

5770. 
6331. 

6~68! 

6,5)2 
7,180. 

8,908. 

7  56  <. 

7,244. 
7  9  56. 

7,871. 

8,4-0 
9  268. 

9,'iOS. 
9,86s. 

9  520. 
1042S 

10,474. 

11,477. 

4 

12.25=1  2J< 

16 

7.^10 

7*16. 

82-<8. 

8  7  !6. 

9,1*14. 

9^96  1' 

10,70'  1. 

11.3)2 

12.044. 

15,252. 

'  >•"      90  '/ 

8,17'. 

8,7:!!. 

9,2n8. 

9.768. 

10,248 

11,136. 

11.961. 

12.7)0. 

l<,4t>8. 

11,816. 

R  ' 

Iff 

* 

9571. 

10  153. 

10,701. 

H.226. 

12  2"1. 

1.3.108 

13953 

'4  "50. 

16  2  ill. 

KV 

30  25-"  !OJi 

10  "10 

10,674. 

11,567 

li  963 

12,5-10. 

1.3643. 

146.2, 

14,510. 

16490 

18.145. 

O/2 

rf>2 

31  *<t 

ll.X'O. 

1  '.  3M). 

13,107. 

138  3. 

1449). 

15.751. 

IH.020. 

180i  5 

10.012 

21.95). 

6 

36 

14  160. 

13,815. 
1513-.. 

16053 

15415. 

160>i. 

1775')'. 

17.611. 
19292. 

20721! 

20.14'): 
22061. 

2  '.291. 
23.320. 

23,427. 

25.660. 

7  2 

42.25=12^ 
49. 

10  350. 

17,177. 

1  -",5  'A. 

19537. 

20492 

25.275. 

23.930 

25,47'-. 

26,930. 

29.63  ). 

g 

6t' 

19,537 

20.7  >0 

21,511. 

22.910 

24905. 

26,75  5. 

2H4* 

3,i,llo. 

33  130. 

10 

10 

n 

20  rvxv 

21,40i. 

•72.70  ). 

23.028. 

2i09<. 

!7  285. 

•29,305. 

31  20  '  . 

32,980. 

36.3  0. 

12 

144! 

21  .6  ?5 

2  Ml  6. 

24A16. 

2i.H46. 

27,'0't. 

-'9  468. 

31  65  !. 

33,700. 

35.623. 

39,200. 

16 

256! 

23  '  20. 

21,711. 

262M. 

•'7,630. 

28  980 

31.502. 

3  !  8  10 

36  ')_'  '. 

33.082. 

41.910. 

18 

32  l 

2  1  5  20. 

26,111. 

27,><07. 

29.305. 

30  735 

33.413 

35891. 

38,211. 

40,39  ). 

41,150. 

20 

40 

i 

25.810. 

27,'*2't 

29308. 

3  )  89.). 

3!  4>2. 

3  1,221. 

37871 

40,280. 

4  '.5,80. 

4-.850. 

27,110 

28,979. 

30.635. 

32,402. 

33  980. 

36,940. 

39,670. 

42,241 

44,670. 

49,140. 

294 


GEOLOGY   OF   OHIO. 


ABSOLUTE  MEASUREMENT  TEST  OF  THE  PITOT  TUBE  GAUGE  AS  APPLIED 

IN  MEASURIKG  GASES. 

To  strengthen  and  confirm  confidence  in  the  Pitot  tube  gauge  for 
accuracy  as  applied  to  gas  measurements  further  than  already  done  by 
citing  its  accuracy  in  streams  of  water  and  its  agreement  with  theory  in 
development  of  pressure  due  to  impact  agiinst  its  tip  mouth,  some  abso- 
lute quanti'ative  experiments  were  recently  made  in  connection  with  a 
gas  metfr  prover,  where  a  known  volume  of  air  was  forced  through  a  pipe 
in  a  measured  interval  of  time,  the  same  being  carefully  measured  with 
the  Pitot  tube  gauge,  the  results  of  which  are  given  in  the  following : 

TABUS  OP  COMPARATIVE  VOLUMES  OP  AIR  SIMULTANEOUSLY  MEASURED  BY  THE  GAS 
METER  PROVER  AND  THE  PITOT  TUBE  GAUGE. 


Diameter 
of  pipe  — 
inches. 

Volume  by 
gauge. 

Volume  by 
prover. 

r 

1.25 

173. 

161. 

12  experiments,  October  4,  1890.  \ 

.865 
.865 

148. 
182. 

150. 
185. 

{ 

173 

263. 

240. 

9  experiments,  October  11,  1890.  j 

1.23 

.86 

201. 
190. 

200. 
188. 

1928 

187.3 

Difference,  less  than  3%. 

The  Pitot  tube  mouth  was  here  placed  in  the  center  of  the  pipe,  where 
the  cuirent  is  most  rapid,  but  the  figures  were  corrected  for  this,  as  well  as 
for  temperature  of  air  and  all  known  causes  of  error.  The  final  difference 
of  three  per  cent  is  believed  to  be  within  the  errors  of  observation  and 
might  be  plus  or  minus,  as  indeed  the  individual  comparisons  are,  indi- 
cating that  the  instrument  is  practically  exact  for  measurement  of  gases 
as  well  as  liquids. 

Practical  Field  Test  of  Pitot  Tube  Gauge  with  Standard  Meters. 

In  the  course  of  practical  field  work  with  the  Pitot  tube  gauge,  it  has 
been  applied  to  pipes  which,  at  the  same  time,  were  conducting  gas  as 
measured  with  the  Westinghouse  natural  gas  meter,  the  latter  being  read  and 
noted  each  time.  Comparative  results  thus  obtained  are  given  in  the 
following : 


THE    MEASUREMENT   OF    NATURAL   GAS. 


295 


OF  SIMULTANEOUS  MEASUREMENTS  BY  THE  WESTINGHOUSE  NATURAL  GAB 
METER  AND  BY  THE  PITOT  TUBE  GAUGE. 


Diameter  of  pipe 
line  —  inches. 

Gauge  pressure  in 
pipe. 

Cubic  feet  hour  by 
meter. 

Cubic  feet  hour  by 
gauge. 

6 

13.6   ounces. 

11,970 

12,005 

3 

10.4        " 

4,430 

4,025 

6 

9.2        " 

14,933 

15,843 

6 

9.2        " 

14,933 

15,336 

6 

7  pounds. 

28,900 

29.702 

6 

7 

32,032 

29,460 

6 

7 

33,0i  0 

34,590 

6 

19.2  ounces. 

20,930 

20,611 

6 

19.2        " 

19,063 

19,175 

6 

19.2        " 

17,990 

17,733 

3 

8.8        " 

4,307 

3.924 

6 

7.0        " 

12,720 

13325 

6 

13.3        " 

12,310 

12^97 

Means  

17,500 

17,578 

- 

It  was  not  always  practicable  to  make  the  readings  absolutely  simul- 
taneous, though  they  were  usually  separated  by  less  than  one  minute. 
In  this  way  the  diSerences  between  gauge  and  meter  might  fluctuate 
somewhat  as  indeed  they  do. 

The  density  of  the  natural  gas  where  the  above  figures  were  obtained 
was  0.66,  and  the  values  obtained  from  the  tables  for  the  Pitot  gauge 
observations  were  corrected  as  per  foot  note  to  the  table,  also  for  the 
velocity  curve  as  explained  below,  so  that  the  Pitot  tube  gauge  column  of 
figures  is  to  be  regarded  as  fully  corrected. 

The  meter  results  were  low  before  correcting  for  pressures,  the  values 
for  seven  pounds  being  decidedly  low,  the  correction  being  nearly  50  per 
cent.  This  fact  indicates  that  the  Westinghouse  meter  m-  asures  volumes 
at  whatever  density  the  gas  passes  the  meter,  so  that  where  the  gas  is  sub- 
sequently expanded  to  the  true  storage  value,  that  storage  result  is  too 
low.  Hence,  in  using  this  meter,  a  pressure  gauge  should  be  an  adjunct 
and  be  read  for  the  purpose  of  determining  a  correction.  With  these 
facts  in  view,  the  above  results  of  observation  are  in  essential  agreement 
either  instrument  proving  the  other  satisfactory  for  accuracy. 

CORRECTION  FOR  VELOCITY  CURVE. 

In  using  the  Pitot  tube  gauge  the  tip  A,  figure  3,  plate  4,  should,  to 
avoid  correction  of  the  result  tor  the  so-calltd  "  velocity  curve  "  of  the 
flowing  stream,  be  placed  at  from  one-filth  to  one-sixth  of  the  depth  or 
diameter  of  the  pipe,  because  of  the  varying  velocity  of  the  flowing  gas  in 


296  GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO. 

the  diameter  of  pipe,  it  being  greatest  at  the  center  of  pipe  and  about  two- 
thirds  this  at  the  side.  The  mean  velocity  in  the  whole  pipe  at  a  given 
cro&s  section  is  only  about  0  85  that  at  the  center,  0  87  that  at  a  third  the 
diameter,  0.92  that  at  a  fourth  the  diameter,  0.96  that  at  a  filth  the  di- 
ameter. 

To  avoid  using  the  above  correction  multipliers  several  t'ps  of  various 
lengths  may  be  ctrried  in  the  instrument  kit  when,  for  particular  cases, 
the  proper  length  to  employ  may  be  selected,  it  being  the  one  who*e  pene- 
tration into  the  line  pipe  is,  as  above  stated,  about  one-fifih  to  one  sixth 
the  depth  of  diameter.  But  more  reliable  results  are  probably  obta;ned 
by  placing  the  tip  at  the  center  of  the  pipe  and  applying  the  correction  0.85. 

This  correction  is  to  be  understood  as  due  to  varying  velocity  in  the 
pipe  diameter  and  not  to  an  incorr*  ct  result  for  velocity  by  the  Pitot  gauge, 
as  that  is  still  found  to  be  truly  the  theoretical  velocity  for  the  position 
occupied  by  the  tip. 

In  ueing  the  instrument  alcohol  is  found  to  be  the  best  liquid  to  work 
free  in  the  glass  tubes  of  the  gauge  C  D,  as  water  acts  at  times  as  if  the 
interior  of  the  tube  were  greasy.  Proof  alcohol  of  ab  >ut  98  per  cent,  has 
a  specific  gravity  of  0  8,  and  the  gauge  reading  fur  alcohol  may  be  reduced 
to  those  for  water  by  multipl}ing  the  reading  by  0.8  though  a  column 
for  alcohol  is  given  in  Table  II. 

la  using  the  instrument  it  is  essential  that  the  connection  between 
the  tip  A  B  and  gauge  C  D  be  abs  >lutely  air  tight,  especially  whtn  the 
.openings  A  and  B  are  small,  but  with  this  precaution  the  gauge  C  D  may 
be  at  a  considerable  distance  from  the  point  of  application  of  A  B  to  the 
pipe  Hue,  as  for  instance  in  an  office  fifty  feet  or  more  away,  and  all  ptr- 
manently  installed  for  convenient  reading  at  any  moment. 

In  cas-e  of  a  permanent  location  the  tip  B  may  be  S'-parattd  from  A 
by  one  or  two  feet  to  simplify  the  const; uction  of  the  parts. 

Examples  from  actual  measurements  taken  to  illustrate  application  of 
Pitot  Tube  Gauge  to  measurement  of  pipe  lines  : 

Example  1.     Pipe  10-inch  main. 

Pressure      24  inches  water. 
Flow         0. 10  inches  water  by  Pitot  Gauge. 

Table  II,  V.  hour  =  550  6  for  1  inch  pipe. 

"  55,060  for  10-inch  pipe. 

Example  2.     Pipe  2  inch  by  pass. 

Pressure     4  pounds. 

Flow  3.8  inches  mercury. 

-Table  II,  V.  hour=  12  255  for  1-inch  pipe. 
49,020  for  2  inch  pipe. 


THE    MEASUREMENT   OF   NATURAL    GAS.  297 

Example  3.    Pipe          8  inch  main  pipe  line. 
Pressure    101  pounds. 
Flow        0  24  inches  water. 

Table  II,  V.  hour  =  151,000  for  8-inch  main. 

Correcting  this  for  the  "velocity  curve"  requires  for  this  case  a 
multipler  of  about  0.93,  making  the  value  140,000. 

Same  case  by  pipe  line  measurement,  142,000,  by  Table  III,  for  which 
the  pressure  was  112  pounds  at  eleven  miles  from  where  the  above  101 
pounds  was  taken. 

Example  4.     Pipe  1|  inch  service  pipe. 

Pressure      5  ounces. 
Flow       0  19  inches  water. 

Table  II,  V.  hour,  1J72  for  IJ-inch  pipe. 
Same  by  Westinghouse  meter,  1,170. 

II.    BY  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  FLOW  IN  PIPES. 

For  measurement  of  gis  actually  flowing  in  an  existing  pipe  line  the 
Pitot  Tube  Gauge  can  not  be  surpassed  for  simplicity,  convenience  and 
accuracy.  But  as  the  instrument  can  not  be  applied  to  an  imaginary 
pipe  line,  such  as  a  proposed  line  from  a  gas  field  to  a  city,  where  the 
capacity  of  the  pipe  line  must  be  up  to  a  certain  figure,  the  Pitot  giuge 
will  not  apply,  and  here  we  find  an  important  service  fur  pipe  line  formu- 
las and  tables. 

Thus  to  establish  the  dimensions  of  a  pipe  line  for  conveying  a 
given  quantity  of  gas  per  hour  and  other  puposes,  the  following  formulas 
and  tables  are  g'ven. 

The  coefficient  of  friction  of  the  gas  against  the  inside  of  pipe  is 
•here  an  important  factor,  its  value  as  determined  for  natural  gas  being 
variable,  as  well  as  for  other  fluids.,  and  closely  represented  by  the  ex- 
pression (see  Ohio  Geology  Report,  Vol.  VI,  p.  582), 

f=  0.00053^. 

The  flow  in  long  pipes,  like  natural  gis  pipe  lines,  will  be  approxi- 
mately isothermal ;  that  L->,  though  the  gas  will  expand  as  it  flows  along, 
and  become  cooled  by  such  expansion,  unless  protected  by  non-con- 
ductors, yet  in  an  iron  pipe,  buried  in  earth,  the  pipe  can  readily  impart 
heat  to  warm  the  g  is  as  it  cools.  The  work  done  by  the  expansion  of  the 
g*s  will  aid  in  overcoming  the  resistance  to  flow,  as  well  as  the  difference 
of  pressure  in  the  pipe  at  opposite  ends.  A  formula,  taking  account  of 


298  GEOLOGY    OF   OHIO. 

all  the  components  producing  motion,  a3  well  as  all  the  resistances  to  flow 
in  a  pipe  for  this  case,  is 

v*          d  pz    j  spi  v»         i 

^-WJTd^l\^)-1   \  (6) 

where  v  =  mean  velocity  at  "  down-stream  "  end  of  pipe,  feet  per  second. 
g  =  acceleration  of  gravity  =  32.2  feet. 
d  =  diameter  of  pipe,  in  feet,  inside. 

f  =  coefficient  of  friction  =  .00053  v% 

I  —  leng  h  of  pipe  in  feet. 

<S2  =  weight  per  cubic  ft.  of  flowing  gis  at  down-stream  end  of  pipe. 
PJ  =  absolute  pressure  at  upper  end  of  pipe  considered,  pounds  per 

square  foot. 
p2  =  like  pressure  at  down-stream  end  of  pipe. 

By  introducing  the  value  of  the  constants,  and  expressing  the  pipe 
length  I  in  miles,  and  the  diameter  d  in  inches,  factoring  and  reducing 
we  obtain  the  cubic  feet  per  hour  of  uniform  flow 

4  _4         .26 

Fhour  =  ^  * 


I    J          \    2pz 
where  the  correction  for  temperature  was  taken  at 

A 


The  term 


2P2 


(8) 


is  nearly  1  for  quite  a  range  in  pl  to  p2  and  it  is  taken  as  1  in  calculating 
the  quantities  in  Table  III.  But  in  cases  of  considerable  fall  in  pressure 
of  the  flowing  gas  as  it  moves  from  the  upstream  end  to  the  lower,  it  i« 
necessary  to  include  the  effect  due  to  the  term  (8). 

This  is  best  done  in  case  of  tabular  computations  by  making  a  table 
of  multipliers  from  (8)  itself.  These  are  given  in  Table  IV.  Hence,  when 
a  value  is  taken  from  Table  III  it  is  to  be  multiplied  by  the  proper  value 
from  Table  IV,  when  the  latter  multiplier  has  considerable  value  in 
excess  of  1. 

In  the  tables  the  pressures  are  given  as  gauge  pressures,  that  is,  th« 
pressure  as  observed  from  an  ordinary  pressure  gauge  pounds  per  equart 
inch,  and  apparent  pressures,  not  absolute. 


THE    MEASUREMENT   OF   NATURAL   GAS. 

As  a  rule  to  guide  in  the  determination  of  cubic  feet  of  flow  of  a 
pipe  line — 

1st.     Find  the  cubic  feet  from  Table  III. 

2d.    Correct  for  temperature  by  aid  of  foot  note  to  Table  III. 

3d.     Find  the  proper  multiplier  from  Table  IV  and  apply. 

4th.     Find  proper  multiplier  from  Table  V  and  apply. 

The  last  result  is  the  cubic  feet  per  hour  of  uniform  flow  at  storage 
temperature  and  at  atmospheric  or  storage  pressure. 

To  determine  a  pipe  line  when  the  length  and  the  cubic  feet  per  hour 
are  made  known  also  the  initial  and  terminal  pressures,  find  the  value  in 
the  first  column  of  Table  III,  and  look  along  to  where  the  cubic  feet  per 
hour  is  found.  The  diameter  at  top  of  this  column  is  the  diameter  sought 
for  the  pipe  line.  The  cubic  feet  per  hour  given,  however,  should  be 
divided  by  value  in  Table  V  before  looking  in  Table  III. 

Thus  suppose  a  pipe  of  forty  miles  length,  gauge  pressure  at  upper 
end  200  pounds,  and  at  lower  end  forty  pounds,  and  the  cubic  feet  per 
hour  capacity  to  be  200,000,  storage  value,  or  53,470  at  the  forty  pound 
pressure  at  lower  end  of  pipe.  Then  the  value  for  the  first  column  of 
table  is 

200  —  40_  n-o 
54.6  X  40~ 

This  figure  is  nearly  midway  between  .068  and  .077  of  the  first  column 
of  Table  III.  Looking  along  we  find  the  value  53470,  under  nine  inches 
diameter  by  proper  interpolating.  Hence,  the  required  diameter  of  the 
pipe  line  in  this  case,  of  the  same  size  throughout,  is  nine  inches. 

If  the  pressures  be  100  pounds  at  the  down-stream  end  instead  of 
forty  pounds,  as  above,  we  find  the  first  column  value  of  Table  III  to  be 
.022,  and  the  storage  volume  of  200,000  cubic  feet  at  100  pounds  pressure 
is  25,480,  and  the  diameter  of  pipe  line  in  this  case  is  eight  inches. 

That  is,  with  the  given  initial  gauge  pressure  of  200  pounds  per 
square  inch,  the  8-inch  pipe  line  forty  miles  long  will  deliver  the  same 
storage  value  of  gas,  if  the  terminal  pressure  be  100  pounds,  as  would  the 
9-inch  pipe  line,  of  the  same  length,  with  a  terminal  pressure  of  forty 
pounds. 


300 


GEOLOGY   OF    OHIO. 


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THE    MEASUREMENT   OF   NATURAL   GAS. 


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302 


GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO. 


TABLE  IV. 
MULTIPLIERS  FOB  CORRECTING   QUANTITIES   TAKEN  PROM  TABLE  III,  FOR  CASES 

WHEKE   THE    FALL   OF   PRESSURE   OF   GAS   FLOWING   FROM   UPPER   END   TO   LOWER 

END  IN  A  PIPE  LINE  is  CONSIDERABLE. 


Gauge  pressure 
at  upper  end. 

Gauge  pressure  at  lower  end  of  pipe,  or  terminal  pressure. 

5 

10 

20 

40 

60 

80 

100 

150 

200 

300 

20 
30 
40 
60 
80 
100 
150 
200 
300 
400 
500 

1.125 

'1.197 
1.261 
1.367 
1475 

1.037 
1.132 
1.190 
1.295 
1.380 
1.460 
1.632 
1.780 
2.018 

1. 

1.050 
1,097 
1.198 
1.260 
1.326 
1.468 
1.590 
1.801 
1.980 
2.122 

« 

1. 

1.060 
1.121 
1.175 
1.288 
1.390 
1.557 
1.710 
1.823 

1. 

1.049 
1.090 
1.187 
1.270 
1.417 
1.540 
1.648 

1. 
1.035 
J.110 
1.190 
1.324 
1.440 
1.531 

1. 

1.070 
1.137 
1.258 
1.360 
1.445 

1. 

1.057 
1.147 
1.235 
1.303 

1. 

1.080 
1.153 
1.214 

1. 
1.060 
1.105 

By  comparing  these  two  diameters  it  appears  that  the  100  pound 
terminal  pressure  is  better  than  the  forty,  giving  diameters  of  pipe  of 
eight  and  nine  inches  respectively.  But  at  a  terminal  pressure  of  200 
pounds  there  could  he  no  flow,  and  hence  there  seems  to  be  some  one 
terminal  pressure  for  each  cor  stant  initial  pressure  that  will  give  a 
maximum  flow,  as  expressed  in  terms  of  cubic  feet  at  storage  pressure. 

By  a  mathematical  invesigation  a  maximum  flow  for  a  given  pipe  is 
found  to  exist  when 

jo2  =  pi  .5222. 
for  absolute  pressures,  and 

p2l  —  pj1 .5222  — 7.  nearly,  for  gauge  pressures.  (9) 

It  is  a  singular  fact  that  the  conditions  for  maximum  flow  are  in- 
dependent of  both  length  and  diameter  of  pipe  line. 

This  fact  of  a  maximum  flow  is  an  important  one,  and  is  shown  in 
the  following  set  of  figures  for  a  pipe  line  thirteen  miles  long,  six  inches 
in  diameter,  with  an  initial  pressure  of  97.4  pounds  per  square  inch  : 


THE   MEASUREMENT   OF    NATURAL    GAS. 


303 


Then  for  a  terminal  pressure  of    0  tt>s.  the  flow  =  76,000.  cubic  feet,  storage  value. 


10 
20 
30 
50 
60 
70 

80 
82 

90 


82,900. 
88  000. 
92,000. 
93,000. 
91,000. 
85,000. 
76,500. 
73,800. 
62,000. 


The  maximum  value,  93,000,  occurs  at  about  half  the  initial  pressure 
as  by  the  formula  (9.) 

TABLE  V. 

MULTIPLIERS  CHANGING  THE  VOLUME  OF  GAS  FROM  THAT  AT  THE  OBSERVED  PRESS- 
URE AT  THE  "  DOWNSTREAM"  END  OF  PIPE,  AS  GIVEN  BY  TABLES  III  AND  IV, 

TO  THAT  AT  ATMOSPHERIC  PRESSURE  AS  THOUGH  STOKED  IN  A  GAS-H«'LDER.     THUS, 

IF  THE  OBSERVED   PRESSURE  is  30   POUNDS,  TABLES   III  AND   IV  GIVE  ONLY 

ABOUT   ONE-THIRD   THE   ATMOSPHERIC   VOLUME. 


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6.137 

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6.480 

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3.877 

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7.850 

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20.180 

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4.014 

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8.535 

300 

21.550 

18 

2.233 

46 

4.151 

120 

9.220 

320 

22.920 

20 

2.370 

48 

4.288 

130 

9.905 

340 

24.290 

22 

2.507 

50 

4.425 

140 

10.590 

360 

25.660 

24 

2.644 

55 

4.767 

150 

11.275 

400 

28.400 

26 

2.781 

60 

5.110 

160 

11960 

450 

31.825 

28 

2.918 

65 

5.452 

170 

12.645 

500 

35.250 

304 


GEOLOGY    OF   OHIO. 


In  Table  VI  are  given  the  terminal  and  initial  pressures  for  the 
maximum  of  flow  through  pipe  lines.  For  a  13  4  initial  pressure  the 
maximum  occurs  for  the  outlet  to  be  into  free  air.  For  a  fifty-pound 
initial  pressure  the  maximum  flow  occurs  for  a  terminal  pressure  of  19.11 
pounds,  etc. 

TABLE  VI. 
RELATION   OP   THE   INITIAL  GAUGE   PJRESSURE  TO  THE  TERMINAL  GAUGE   PREBS- 

UKE   FOB   THE   MAXIMUM    FLOW,   STORAGE   VALUE,   OF    GAS   IN   A   PlPE   LlNE. 


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45.22 

210 

102.65 

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1.36 

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19.11 

110 

50.44 

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107.88 

18 

2.40 

55 

21.72 

120 

55.67 

230 

113.10 

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344 

60 

24.33 

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60.89 

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118.32 

22 

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66.11 

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4000 

190 

92.21 

300 

149.66 

40 

1389 

95 

42.60 

200 

97.43 

310 

154.88 

Example  1.    A  pipe  line  ten  mile?  long,  four-inch  pipe,  initial  press- 
ure 200  p  lunds,  terminal  97.4  pounds  for  a  maximum  flow.    Then 
Fall  per  mile.  _    200  —  97.4     _  _tr-2  6 


_  _ 

14  6  -\-  lower  gauge  pressure.          (14.6  +  974)  10       llzO 

Looking  in  first  column  of  Table  III,  opposite  .092,  and  under  four- 
inch  pipe  we  find  (interpolating)  8,360  cubic  feet  per  hour. 

If  the  temperature  of  flowing  gas  were  44°,  that  of  storage  being  50° 
F.,  the  correction  for  temperature  would  be  about  1^  per  cent,  which 
correction  applied  to  8  360  would  give  8,464. 

The  correction  multiplier  from  Table  IV  is  practically  1.137,  which, 
in  round  numbers,  is  1|.  Hence,  8,464  X  1|  =  9,673  cubic  fett  per  hour. 


THE    MEASUREMENT    OF    NATURAL    GAS.  305 

This  volume  is  still  at  97.4  pounds  per  gauge  pressure,  and  will  expand 
to  atmospheric  pressure  on  putting  it  in  a  storage  gas-holder  where  it  may 
be  regarded  as  at  the  storage  pressure. 

To  correct  for  this  expansion  to  storage  pressure,  use  multiplier  from 
Table  V,  viz  ,  7.68,  and  we  get  9,673  X  7.68  =  74,289  cubic  feet  per  hour 
as  the  maximum  flow  of  the  pipe,  or  the  greatest  possible  amount  of  gas 
either  in  weight,  or  in  cubic  feet  of  gas  at  storage  pressure  it  is  possible  to 
get  through  the  ten  miles  of  four-inch  pipe  with  the  stated  initial  press- 
ure of  200  pounds  whatever  the  terminal  pressure. 

Suppose  this  pipe  be  extended  by  a  six-inch  pipe  thirteen  miles  long, 
making  a  pipe  line  of  ten  miles  of  four-inch,  and  thirteen  miles  of  six- 
inch  pipe,  twenty-three  miles  in  all,  then  the  initial  pressure  for  the 
thirteen  mile  part  will  be  97.4  pounds. 

This  thirteen-mile  portion  will  convey  more  gas,  under  maximum 
flow  than  the  ten- mile  portion  will  supply  to  it,  and  hence  the  maximum 
flow  of  the  system  occurs  when  the  ten-mile  portion  is  working  at  its 
maxim  am.  This  requires  the  thirteen-mile  portion  to  be  working  under 
a  terminal  pressure  such  that  it  will  convey  the  74,289  cubic  feet  per  hour. 
This  is  found  to  be  at  nearly  eighty-two  pounds  by  gauge.  If  the  thirteen- 
mile  portion  were  a  little  longer  there  would  be  two  terminal  pressures 
that  would  give  thus  74.289  cubic  feet  per  hour,  either  of  which  could  be 
adopted  for  the  maximum  service  of  the  whole  line. 

In  designing  pipe  lines  as  of  various  sizes  and  lengths  of  pipe,  the 
first  lengths  should  be  of  the  smaller  size,  because  of  the  high  initial 
pressure  and  very  considerable  fall  available  in  that  portion;  and  then  for 
highest  economy  in  cost  of  line  the  several  sizes  should  be  arranged  so 
that  when  one  portion  is  working  under  maximum  conditions,  all  are. 

Example  2.  Pipe  line  forty- two  miles,  six  inch  diameter,  initial  press- 
ure 200  pounds,  terminal  97.4  pounds  for  maximum  flow.  Cubic  feet  per 
hour,  storage  value,  =  112,360.  If  the  terminal  pressure  be  thirty-five 
pounds  instead  of  97.4  the  cubic  feet  flow  —  100,820. 

Example  3.  Pipe  line  forty-two  miles  by  eight-inch  pipe,  maximum 
flow  for  97.4  terminal  pressure  =  223,790  cubic  feet  per  hour.  For  thirty- 
five  pounds  terminal  pressure  the  flow  =  198,900  cubic  feet,  storage 
conditions,  the  initial  pressure  being  the  same  200  pounds. 


20        G. 


CHAJPTER    VIII. 


THE   WOOD  COUNTY   OIL   FIELD. 

By  an  unfortunate  oversight,  the  section  pertaining  to  the  Wood 
county  oil  field  which  should  have  found  place  on  page  226  et.  s*g.,  was 
overlooked  until  after  the  succeeding  chapter  had  been  begun.  The  section 
is  accordingly  raised  to  the  rank  of  a  chapter,  but  the  matter  is  to  be  con- 
sidered as  strictly  supplemental  to  Chapter  III.  All  the  facts  pertaining 
to  the  field  at  large  and  the  character  of  the  oil  produced  by  it  which  are 
given  in  the  last  named  chapter  (pages  194  to  211),  are  to  be  kept  in 
mindjn  reading  the  account  which  here  finds  place. 

The  Wood  county  oil  field  is  the  heart  of  the  production  of  Trenton 
limestone  oil.  The  total  amount  of  this  oil  brought  to  the  surface  in  the 
northwestern  Ohio  fields  during  October,  1890,  has  exceeded  50,000  barrels 
per  day.  Some  estimates  place  the  amount  as  high  as  60;000  barrels.  Of 
this  oil,  Wood  county  has  produced  more  than  half.  Its  production  is 
lield  by  some  to  have  exceeded  35,000  barrels  during  October.  The  amount 
of  drilling  induced  by  the  advance  in  the  price  of  oil  from  15  to  37^  cents, 
•described  on  page  207,  has  culminated  during  the  months  of  September 
and  October  in  the  following  remarkable  record,  taken  from  the  columns  of 
the^Toledo  Commercial  of  November  1  : 

Wood  County  Oil  Wells. 


Completed  Wells. 

Production. 

Dry. 

Wells  Drilling. 

Eigs  Building. 

September  

129 
147 

8,208  bbls. 
11,165     " 

9 

7 

116 
314 

127 
125 

During  the  same  time,  the  remaining  fields  of  Trenton  limestone  oil 
made  the  following  record  : 


Completed  Wells. 

Production. 

Dry. 

Wells  Drilling. 

Rigs  Building. 

September  
October  

178 
172 

8,101  bbls. 
(>,261      " 

24 
25 

122 
180 

83 
69 

THE  WOOD   COUNTY   OIL    FIELD.  307 

This  is  the  highest  mark  yet  reached  in  Trenton  limestone  produc- 
tion. The  price  of  the  oil  has  receded  to  30  cents  within  the  past  few 
weeks,  and  this  fact  will  doubtless  check  the  drill  from  this  time  forward 
to  some  extent. 

Centers  of  Production 

The  chief  oil  production  of  Wood  county  is  derived  from  the  follow- 
ing townships,  viz :  Henry,  Bloom,  Liberty,  Portage  and  Montgomery. 
Plain  has  recently  been  added  to  the  list.  Perry  adds  a  little  to  the  gen- 
eral stock,  and  Freedom  and  Middleton  also  belong  within  the  limits  of 
the  present  production.  Henry,  Liberty,  Portage  and  Montgomery  are  the 
most  important  townships  in  this  connection,  but  Bloom  township  is 
rapidly  rising  in  valus  as  oil  territory. 

Structure  of  the  Oil  Fields. 

The  most  productive  oil  district  of  the  county,  and  of  the  State  as 
well,  is  that  known  as  the  Wood  County  Oil  Pool.  It  occupies  the  eastern 
portions  of  Henry  and  Liberty  and  makes  some  small  excursions  into 
Portige  and  Bloom.  It  is  represented  under  the  name  given  above  on  the 
map  that  accompanies  this  report.  The  boundary  of  production  as  laid 
down  on  the  map  of  1888  has  been  changed  in  a  few  particulars  and  nota- 
bly by  an  extension  to  the  westward  in  the  vicinity  of  North  Baltimore. 
It  is  also  being  extended  to  the  northward  into  Plain  township.  Since 
the  map  was  engraved,  section  34  in  the  last  named  township  has  been 
added  to  the  productive  district  on  the  strength  of  the  records  of  two  wells 
which  are  reported  as  good  for  25  and  60  barrels,  respectively. 

A  new  pool  of  great  promise  is  now  coming  to  light  to  the  eastward 
of  the  main  pool,  encroaching  to  some  extent  on  what  was  considered, 
and  with  the  best  of  reason  a  year  or  two  ago,  as  dry  gas  territory.  The 
new  pool  as  its  boundaries  now  appear  takes  its  rise  in  section  6,  Bloom 
township,  and  extends  from  there  due  north  through  sections  31,  20,  19, 
18  and  7  of  Portage  township.  The  productive  belt  appears  to  be  less  than 
a  mile  in  width  and  about  six  miles  long  in  a  north  and  south  line.  The 
characteristic  of  the  southern  portion  of  the  new  pool  is  the  presence  of 
dry  gas  in  large  amount  when  the  rock  is  first  reached.  The  wells 
are  large  gas  wells  when  struck,  but  in  a  few  days  they  are  converted  into 
strong  oil  wells,  yielding  100  to  600  barrels  per  day. 

The  north  and  south  trend  of  all  the  prominent  structural  features  of 
this  portion  of  the  county  has  been  insisted  upon  in  all  the  geological  reports 
that  have  been  published  since  the  discovery  of  gas  and  oil  in  the  county. 
This  feature  is  now  recognized  by  the  intelligent  oil-producers  of  the 


308  GEOLOGY   OF    OHIO. 

field  as  a  settled  fact  and  account  is  taken  of  it  in  all  new  development . 
No  one  can  find  rational  grounds  on  which  to  maintain  the  existence  of  a 
northeast  line  of  structure  in  the  Wood  county  oil  field.  A  slight  deflec- 
tion of  the  axis  to  the  westward  shows  in  the  two  main  pools  already 
named. 

In  Montgomery  township,  the  lines  enclosing  the  chief  production 
have  not  been  made  equally  apparent,  but  there  is  a  strong  probability 
that  the  axis  of  the  new  field  will  be  found  as  in  the  other  cases,  to  bear 
to  the  northward. 

As  so  often  shown  in  previous  reports  upon  these  new  fields  the  struct- 
ure of  each  productive  tract  is  most  closely  related  to  its  behavior.  Whether 
a  well  shall  yield  oil  or  gas  is  wholly  a  matter  of  the  level  at  which  the 
limestone  is  found  in  it  by  the  drill.  Each  subdivision  of  the  fields  had 
originally  its  own  dead  line,  as  the  level  at  which  the  salt  water  is  found 
can  be  styled.  The  withdrawal  of  the  gas  on  the  large  scale  has  allowed 
the  oil  and  the  water  that  occupied  the  porous  rock  at  lower  geographical 
levels  to  ascend  to  the  levels  which  the  gas  at  first  held.  This  movement 
has  gone  forward  on  a  large  scale  and  the  oil  field  is  constantly  extending 
itself  inland  with  reference  to  the  dry  gas  rock.  The  drillers  are  recog- 
nizing this  movement  and  are  obtaining  large  and  valuable  wells  in  what 
was  unmistakably  gas  land  in  the  beginning  of  the  development.  It  goes 
without  saying  that  the  gas  fields  are  correspondingly  reduced  in  area  and 
force. 

The  driller  has  found  his  interest  in  getting  the  entire  oil  production 
of  the  rock,  which  is  insured  by  his  going  down  to  the  salt  water.  The 
best  practice  now  in  the  Wood  county  wells  is  to  drill  until  salt  water  is 
at  least  touched.  There  are  wells  that  are  pumping  five  to  ten  barrels  of 
water  to  one  of  oil,  but  when  the  latter  rises  to  fifty  barrels  or  more,  even 
this  large  amount  of  dead  work  can  be  undertaken.  The  separation  of 
the  water  from  the  oil  becomes,  however,  an  added  burden  to  the  producer. 
The  use  of  the  torpedo  increases  the  salt  water,  but  it  is  the  universal 
practice  to  "shoot"  the  smaller  wells,  despite  the  increase  of  water.  The 
production  of  the  oil  is  often  multiplied  ten  fold  by  the  explosion. 

SUBDIVISIONS   OF    THE    FIELD. 

The  North  Baltimore  Field. 

In  Henry  township,  oil  in  large  quantities  is  found  in  the  eighteen 
easternmost  sections,  with  the  exception  of  sections  25  and  36,  and  in 
addition  in  sections  21,  28  and  33.  Comparatively  little  of  section  15  is 
counted  good  territory,  in  the  light  of  what  is  at  present  known,  but  the 
remaining  sections  are  counted  first-class  oil  lands,  without  qualification. 


THE    WOOD    COUNTY    OIL    FIELD.  309 

The  development  that  was  in  such  active  progress  in  1888  has  gone 
forward  with  but  slight  check  since  that  date  and  during  the  last  summer, 
at  a  greatly  accelerated  rate.  The  driller  could  thrive  in  Henry  township 
with  oil  at  15  cents  per  barrel,  provided  that  his  product  could  be  marketed 
as  soon  as  it  reached  the  surface,  but  when  oil  was  advanced  to  37^  cents, 
with  a  brisk  demand  for  all  that  was  produced,  it  was  only  the  fact  that 
the  best  lands  were  already  held  by  interests  that  preferred  to  keep  the  oil 
tanked  in  the  ground  rather  than  to  see  it  brought  to  the  surface,  that  pre- 
vented even  the  present  great  production  from  being  multiplied  several 
fold.  The  Ohio  Oil  Company  which  owns  the  bulk  of  the  producing  ter- 
ritory has  drilled  to  guard  its  lines  and  leases  principally,  and  not  with 
a  desire  to  increase  the  production  of  oil. 

The  only  unexpected  additions  to  the  territory  are  found  in  sections 
26,  27,  28,  33,  34  and  35.  A  well  drilled  early  in  1889  in  the  village  cor- 
poration of  North  Baltimore  began  the  excitement  by  starting  out  with  a 
production  of  not  less  than  400  barrels  per  day.  Here  was  a  field  in  which 
the  local  talent  of  the  country  could  disport  itself.  Village  lots  were  easy 
to  secure  and  in  the  course  of  a  few  months  more  than  fifty  derricks  were 
in  sight  within  the  corporate  limits.  Drilling  was  at  last  forbidden  by 
the  common  council.  Few,  if  any,  of  this  group  of  wells  have  paid  for 
themselves,  but  the  movement  thus  originated  led  directly  to  the  discovery 
of  one  of  the  most  prolific  districts  in  the  township  that,  namely,  of  sec- 
tions 27  and  28. 

The  salt  water  boundary  passes  through  section  28,  but  its  eastern 
half  has  given  rise  to  a  noble  cluster  of  wells.  The  oil  rock  lies  at  nearly  1,200 
feet  below  the  surface  or  about  450  feet  below  tide.  The  oil  itself  is  found  at 
a  depth  of  not  more  than  thirty  feet  in  the  limestone  or  at  about  480  feet 
below  tide.  The  wells  require  a  little  more  than  400  feet  of  casing.  An  in- 
teresting example  illustrating  the  structure  and  condition  of  the  oil  rock 
was  brought  to  light  in  the  drilling  of  the  two  wells,  viz :  the  Chase  well, 
No.  1,  drilled  by  C.  S.  Wade  and  a  well  located  on  a  small  lot  adjoining  the 
Chase  farm  line.  The  stake  for  the  latter  well  was  driven  fifty  feet  from  the 
boundary  of  the  Wade  tract.  This  was  counted  rather  close  for  good  neigh- 
borhood and  a  new  location  was  forthwith  made,  100  feet  within  the  farm 
boundary,  leaving  150  feet  between  the  wells.  A  race  ensued  with  the  oil  rock 
as  the  goal.  The  second  well  won  the  race  and  started  out  at  a  2,000  barrel 
rate.  For  nineteen  consecutive  days  it  averaged  1,400  barrels.  But  the 
time  of  the  Wade  well  was  to  come.  It  found  a  great  flow  at  twenty-nine 
feet  in  the  Trenton,  and  the  production  of  the  other  well  was  forthwith 
entirely  arrested.  But  this  did  not  last  long;  the  second  well  regained  its 
production  and  the  flow  of  the  Wade  well  ceased  altogether.  The  latter 
was  then  drilled  seven  feet  deeper  and  shot  heavily.  It  started  with  great 


3io 


GEOLOGY   OF    OHIO. 


vigor,  the  second  well  becoming  for  a  short  time  quiescent.  Two  more 
alternations  of  fortune  followed,  the  one  well  suspending  its  functions 
while  the  other  was  in  operation,  until  at  last  No.  1  settled  down  to  400 
barrels  daily  while  No.  2  produced  about  300  barrels  daily. 

The  great  wells  of  1888  are  now  being  pumped  in  almost  all  cases  and 
their  production  has  fallen  off  to  little  if  any  more  than  25  per  cent,  of 
their  initial  production.  The  largest  production  known  in  the  field  is 
that  of  a  well  drilled  by  the  Palmer  Oil  Company  in  section  31,  Portage 
township.  It  has  already  put  into  the  line  250,000  barrels  of  oil  and  is 
still  flowing  regularly  at  the  rate  of  150  barrels  per  day. 

The  conditions  under  which  the  oil  is  found  in  Henry  township  are 
seen  in  the  following  well  records  that  fully  represent  the  field,  except  in 
production.  In  this  respect  the  record  is  more  favorable  than  the  aver- 
age. 

In  sections  2  and  3,  on  the  Lawrence  Cable  farm,  the  records  of  wells 
1  and  2  are  as  follows : 


No.  1. 

No.  2. 

Casing  set  at  

368 

381 

Top  of  Trenton  

1167 

1169 

Oil  at  

1190 

1190  1195 

Finished  at  

1195 

1211 

Production  first  day  

400  bbls. 

150  bbls. 

In  section  10,  on  the  Jacob  Neier  farm,  the  records  of  wells  Nos.  1,  2 
an  d  3  are  as  follows : 


No.  1. 

No.  2. 

No.  3. 

Soil  and  clay  

5 

8 

Casing  set  at  

376 

366 

368 

Trenton  struck  at  

1167 

1163 

1164 

Gas  found  at  

1200 

1190 

1187 

Oil      "      "  

1207 

1200 

1204 

Finished  at  

1207 

1203 

1219 

Production  first  day  

125  bbls. 

700  bbls. 

200  bbls. 

In  section  11,  on  William  Hamman's  farm,  the  record  of  wells  1,  2,  3 
and  4  are  given  below : 


THE    WOOD    COUNTY    OIL    FIELD. 


No.  1. 

No.  2. 

No.  3. 

No.  4. 

CEsing  86t  at  

380 

365 

375 

376 

Trenton  struck  at  

1156 

1150 

.    1170 

1168 

Gas  struck  at  

1200 

/  1200  to 

Oil       "        "  

1185 

1207 

\1207 

Finished  at  ,  

1196 

1210 

1207 

1218 

On  section  13,  the  famous  Slaughterbeck  wells  afford  the  following 
partial  records : 

Trenton  struck  at  1142,  1145,  1148,  1144, 1140,  1140,  1141,  1140. 

The  marvelous  steadiness  of  the  Trenton  limestone  in  this  field  is 
brought  into  clear  light  by  these  records.  It  proves  to  be  a  terrace  more 
nearly  level  than  any  sheet  of  rock  that  we  can  find  at  the  surface,  the 
drift  covering  of  this  region  being  excepted.  The  surface  of  this  district 
is  exceedingly  flat  and  monotonous. 

The  records  of  wells  from  the  other  townships  of  the  field  agree  in  all 
important  respects  with  those  already  given.  A  few  will  be  added  at  this 
point. 

In  section  25,  Liberty,  on  the  J.  M.  Weiland  farm,  wells  Nos.  1,  2,  3 
and  4  furnish  the  following  records  : 


No.  1. 

No.  2. 

No.  3. 

No. 

Casing  set  at  

365 

365 

360 

350 

Trenton  struck  at  

1160 

1162 

1153 

1145 

Oil             "        "  

1180 

1201 

1183 

1100-70 

Finished  at  

1198 

1303 

1188 

1179 

Production  first  day..'.  

75  bbls. 

700  bbls. 

800  bbls. 

800  bbls. 

(After 
torpedo.) 

(Salt  water 
with  oil.) 

In    section  18,  Bloom,  on  the  James  Madden  farm,  the  following 
records  are  found : 


No.  1. 

No.  2. 

No.  3. 

No.  4. 

347 

350 

350 

350 

Trenton  struck  at  ,  

1146 

1147 

1143 

1135 

Oil      "    "  .  ... 

1175 

1167  . 

1168 

Finished  at  

1197 

1201 

1198 

1201 

312  GEOLOGY    OF    OHiO 

On  the  western  edge  of  the  field  the  Trenton  is  found  1,200  feet  and 
more  below  the  surface.  Whenever  it  is  struck  at  1,225  feet  or  lower,  the 
territory  is  condemned.  There  is  not  a  single  important  exception  known 
in  this  field  to  the  deduction  of  1886  that  salt  wrater  reigns  supreme  in  the 
Trenton  limestone  when  its  surface  is  500  feet  or  more  below  tide. 

The  Freeport  Oil  Field. 

A  very  important  addition  to  the  oil  production  of  the  county  has 
been  made  in  Montgomery  township  during  the  last  year.  During  the 
present  season,  indeed,  this  district  has  been  or.e  of  the  main  centers  of 
interest  and  speculative  excitement  of  the  county.  In  the  discovery  of 
the  field,  the  Bradner  Oil  Company,  under  the  leadership  of  E.  A.  Ed- 
wards, appears  to  have  taken  the  lead.  Several  small  wells  were  drilled  at 
Bradner  by  this  interest  at  an  early  period  in  the  development  of  Trenton 
limestone  oil.  To  most  who  knew  the  record,  they  seemed  to  give  but 
little  promite,  but  Mr.  Edwards  and  the  company  construed  the  facts 
otherwise  and  extended  their  leases  to  the  westward  without  any  special 
theory  as  to  the  location  of  an  oil  belt.  A  well  drilled  late  in  1889  in 
section  3,  Montgomery  township,  on  the  Fralick  farm,  may  be  counted  as 
fixing  the  initial  date  of  what  is  now  known  as  the  Freeport  field.  This 
well  yielded  at  least  fifty  barrels  of  oil  per  day.  The  Bradner  Company's 
leases  had  been  made  in  many  cases  on  a  cash  royalty  of  four  cents  per 
barrel,  but  the  drilling  of  this  successful  well  brought  an  army  of  oil-pro- 
ducers^into  the  field  and  prices  were  forthwith  run  up  to  $20  and  $25  per 
acre,  bonus,  with  royalty  of  one-fifth,  one-sixth,  one  eighth,  etc. 

Up  to  May  1,  1890,  twelve  more  wells  had  been  drilled  in  sections  2, 
3,  4,  9,  10,  11  and  15,  all  of  which  proved  productive  and  valuable.  The 
best  of  them  showed  a  daily  production  of  150  barrels  for  the  first  day, 
but  such  wells  soon  fell  to  sixty  and  seventy  barrels  which  they  main- 
taine<l  with  fair  steadiness.  All  the  wells  are  ehot  with  eighty  quarts  and 
the  pump  is  applied  to  all  from  the  beginning.  Most  of  them  are  consid- 
erably improved  by  the  effects  of  the  torpedo. 

The  Trenton  limestone  is  struck  at  a  depth  of  1,185  to  1,200  feet,  the 
elevation  of  the  sur'ace  being  about  700  feet  above  tide.  The  oil  is  found 
at  15  to  20  or  even  30  feet  in  the  Trenton  limestone,  or  at  a  depth  of  500 
feet  and  over  below  sea  level,  the  dead-line  of  this  division  being  lower  by 
50  to  75  feet  than  that  of  the  western  section  already  described.  Com- 
paratively little  gas  is  found  in  the  limestone  and  the  salt  water  column 
has  not  been  reported  as  especially  aggressive  thus  far. 

During  the  last  few  months  while  the  price  of  oil  was  held  at  the 
figures  which  were  reached  in  the  advance  of  the  early  part  of  the  year 


THE    WOOD    COUNTY    OIL    FIELD  313 

the  drillers  had  proved  their  way  to  the  village  of  Freeport  or  Prairie 
Depot.  The  usual  result  that  follows  the  inclusion  within  an  oil  field  of 
a  village  with  its  numerous  subdivisions  of  land  has  followed  here.  The 
corporate  limits  bristle  with  derricks  most  of  which  may  be  regarded  as 
monuments  of  the  greed  on  the  one  side  and  the  spite  on  the  other  that 
have  located  them  within  50  or  100  feet  of  each  other.  These  derricks  do 
not  stand  for  either  fair  play  or  good  sense.  Few  and  probably  none  of 
these  village  wells  can  repay  the  expenditures  that  have  been  made  upon 
them. 

The  importance  of  the  Freeport  field  can  be  seen  in  this  fact,  that  of 
the  147  new  wells  completed  in  October  in  Wood  county,  almost  exactly 
one-half  (72)  are  to  be  credited  to  Montgomery  township.  Of  the  new  oil 
production  of  the  county,  of  11,000  barrels  for  October,  nearly  4,000  barrels 
are  assigned  to  this  township.  Its  inferiority  to  the  North  Baltimore  field 
is  also  shown  in  these  same  figures.  The  largest  we  Is  are  reported  with  a 
production  of  200  barrels,  and  20  out  of  the  72  new  wells  are  reported  as 
having  a  production  of  100  barrels  or  more. 

The  oil  of  the  Freeport  field  is  of  the  best  grade  that  is  yielded  by  the 
Trenton  limestone,  its  gravity  being  42°  B.  and  its  sulphurous  compounds 
being  less  stubborn  or  at  least  less  offensive  than  those  that  are  found  in 
ths  oil  of  the  older  sections  of  the  field,  as  Findlay  and  Lima.  The  bound- 
aries of  the  productive  district  are  not  yet  made  apparent,  but  a  salt 
water  trough,  with  but  little  doubt,  marks  its  northwestern  limit. 

The  village  of  Rising  Sun,  included  within  Montgomery  township, 
has  bonded  itself  during  the  year  to  the  extent  of  $6,000,  the  money 
raised  by  the  sale  of  the  bonds  to  be  spent  in  prospecting  for  oil  or  gas. 
The  Paragon  company  drilled  a  well  for  the  corporation  on  a  forty-five  acre 
tract  leased  by  the  latter.  The  Trenton  was  found  hard,  dry  and  totally 
unproductive  at  a  depth  of  1,218  feet.  Drilling  was  continued  for  at  least 
100  feet  below  its  upper  beds  without  any  valuable  result. 

The  entire  summary  of  the  results  of  drilling  to  the  Trenton  lime- 
stone in  northern  Ohio  in  October  will  be  given  at  this  point.  Extracts 
from  it  have  been  used  on  a  preceding  page.  The  list  was  prepared  and 
published  by  the  Toledo  Commercial  of  November  1.  It  has  the  marks 
and  it  has  the  reputation  of  being  a  reliable  account  of  the  great  work  of 
developing  the  new  oil  horizon  that  is  now  in  progress. 


3*4 


GEOLOGY    OF    OHIO. 

Summary  of  Completed  Wells. 


September. 

October. 

Completed. 

Production, 
(bbls.) 

Dry. 

Completed, 
(bbls.) 

Production. 

Dry. 

Wood  

129 

75 
25 
50 
23 
5 

8,208 
4,320 
903 
2,123 
660 
95 

9 
6 
3 

7 
6 
2 

147 
66 
19 
48 
29 
10 

11,165 

2,255 
583 
2,385 
993 
45 

7 
11 

"5 
3 
6 

Hancock  

Allen  

Auglaize  

Sandusky  

Miscellaneous  

Totals  

307 

16,309 

33 

319 

17,426 

32 

Increase   of  finished  wells 12. 

Increase  of  new  production 1,117. 

Average  of  September  wells , 53£. 

Average  of  October  wells 54§. 

Wells  Drilling. 


September. 

October. 

Drilling. 

Rig. 

Total. 

Drilling. 

Kig. 

Total. 

Wood  

116 
58 
13 
24 
18 
9 

127 
33 

"l2" 

28 
10 

243 
91 
13 
36 
46 
19 

114 
89 
15 
47 
22 
7 

125 
16 
6 
16 

27 
4 

239 
105 
21 
63 
49 
11 

488 

Hancock  ,  

Allen  

Auglaize  

Sandusky  

Miscellaneous  

Totals  

238 

210 

448 

294 

194 

Increase  drilling  wells 56 

Decrease  rigs 16 

Total  increase 40 

The  Decline  in  Price  of  Ohio  Oil. 

During  the  last  month  the  price  of  Trenton  limestone  oil  has  been 
reduced  by  the  Buckeye  Pipe  Line  Company,  by  three  successive  cuts, 
from  37^  cents  to  30  cents  per  barrel,  at  which  point  it  rests  at  this  writing. 
A  good  deal  of  uneasiness  is  felt  among  the  land  owners  and  the  independ- 
ent producers  as  to  the  purposes  of  the  great  corporation  in  making  the 
reductions  named  above.  If  the  Buckeye  Pipe  Line  Company  decides  to 
go  further  in  this  direction,  there  is  none  to  stay  its  hand  or  say  to  it,  what 


THE    WOOD    COUNTY    OIL    FIELD.  315 

doest  thou?  To  this  complexion,  the  great  oil  field  of  Ohio  has  come  al- 
ready. As  has  been  previously  remarked,  the  petroleum  markets  of  the 
country  are  in  no  sense  free  markets  in  which  intrinsic  values  rule.  The 
price  of  Ohio  oil  for  example  is  absolutely  controlled  by  one  gigantic  cor- 
poration. 

While  deprecating  this  result,  it  is  still  hard  to  see  what  useful  purpose 
is  secured  by  bringing  to  the  surface  50,000  barrels  of  oil  every  day,  to  be  ex- 
posed to  loss  by  evaporation  and  leakage  and  to  danger  by  fire,  when  not 
more  than  half  the  whole  amount  is  taken  up  by  the  markets  of  the  country. 
An  unlimited  demand  for  fuel  oil  could  be  speedily  established  which  would 
leave  no  surplus  from  the  present  or  even  a  far  larger  production,  provided 
the  producer  could  guarantee  rates  for  a  reasonable  term  in  advance,  but  this 
is  precisely  what  he  can  not  do.  It  is  not  an  unmitigated  disadvantage  that 
he  can  not,  for  it  would  inflict  a  serious  loss  upon  the  country  at  large  to 
have  this  great  body  of  oil  that  can  maintain  for  many  years  to  come  the 
high  standard  of  illuminating  oils  which  our  people  have  been  trained  to 
demand,  turned  over  to  manufacturers  and  made  to  replace  the  usual 
grades  of  cheap  bituminous  coals  in  the  commonest  and  rudest  of  their 
applications. 


INDEX. 


Ada  gas  field 134 

Adams  county  fault 53 

Akron  arch 52 

Allen  county  oil  wells 215 

Lima  oil  field 216 

Spencerville  field 217 

Allen  township  wells 123 

characteristics  of  field 126 

decline  of  pressure 128 

list  of  wells 124 

number  of  wells 123 

rock  pressure  and  behavior 127 

Anderson's  statement  of  Mendeljeff'e 

theory g2 

Anticline 51      53 

Asphalt — 

in  Dayton  limestone 80 

of  Central  America 81 

of  Trinidad 80 

use  among  the  ancients 57 

Auglaize  county — 

gas  wells  of 156 

character 160 

Lima  Natural  Gas  Company..  157 

New  Bremen  pipeline 161 

gas  rates 161 

ry's   village    corpora- 
tion   157 

Wapakoneta  pipe  line  160 

wells 158 

oil  wells  of 212 

Buckland  field 213 

Cridersville  field  215 

St.  Mary's  field 213 

£ 

Baku  oil  field  71 

Barnesville  gas  field 254 

Barren  Coal  Measures,  Lower 44 

oil  rocks  of 44 

Bedford  shale 34 

character 34 

fossils ,  35 


PAGE 

Berea  grit 35 

a  source  of  oil  and  gas 249 

character 36 

importance 35 

origin  of  name 36 

thickness  and  area 35 

Berea  shale 37 

boundaries  37 

character 37 

source  of  oil 37 

Berthelot's  theory  of  origin  gas  and 

oil 61 

"Big  Indian"  sand  rock 252 

Bitumens — 

chemical  composition  ... 56 

distribution 58 

early  history 57 

later  history 59 

Blue  Lick  water 13 

Bowlders 9 

Bowling  Green  Natural  Gas  Co 137 

lands  and  rock  pressure 153 

Bradner  Refinery  ,....  204 

Bradford  oil  sand  194 

Brewer  Pottery  Company 188 

Briggs  Iron  Works 121 

consumption  of  gas 121 

Buena  Vista  stone 38 


Cadiz  anticline 50 

Cadiz  oil  field 250 

character 251 

records  of  wells 253 

Calciferous  period 13 

Cambridge  arch 51 

Cambridge  gas  field 255 

Carboniferous  system  of  Ohio,  relation 

to  gas  and  oil 43 

Carey  gas  field 174 

Carey  oil  field 221 

Cass  township  gas  field 131 

rock  pressure 131 

Cass  township  oil  field 220 


INDEX. 


317 


Celina  pipe  line 162 

location  of  wells 163 

purchase  of 164 

Cincinnati  anticline  or  axis 30,     46 

direction  47 

extent 47-49 

Cincinnati  group  15 

thickness   15 

Clay  burning 275 

Findlay  and  North  Baltimore 275 

price  of  gas  in  brick  making  276 

Cleveland  shale 29 

fossils 32 

thickness 30 

Cliff  limestone 27 

Clinton  limestone  as  source  of  oil  and 

gas 227 

previous  mention  227 

date  of  tests 229 

character 17,     18 

composition 18,  229 

deep  wells,  to  reach  Clinton 243 

Amanda   243 

Coshocton 245 

Dresden  246 

Mansfield 245 

Mt.  Vernon 244 

Plain  City  246 

Somerset 246 

discovery  and  use  of  gas 231 

gas  fields  of 234 

Lancaster 234 

Newark 237 

Thurston  240 

gas  rock  of 230 

geological  section  of  wells 232 

geological  structure  of  field 232 

iron  ore 17 

outcrop 18 

source  of  gas 17,     80 

source  of   oil 17 

summary 242 

Coal  Measures,  Lower 44 

Columbus  Gas  Company 231 

Conglomerate  group — 

order 44 

thickness 

Corniferous  limestone 24-  2( 

bitumens 7£ 

Cow  run  anticline 51 

Cuyahoga  shale 37  -3J 

characteristics  of 38 

fossils •'>'. 


)rake  well 9 

)unkirk  field 186 


Sagle  refinery 203 

Everett  Glass  Works  ...         237 


^aults  in  Ohio 54 

rindlay  break 109 

continuation  of 23 

Tindlay  gas  field.     (See   also   under 
Trenton  limestone) — 

depth  of  deadline 107 

discovery 105 

failure  of 115 

gas  production 112 

iron  works  of 120 

rates 121 

rock  pressure 116,  117 

summary  of  facts 122 

total  gas  consumption  123 

utilization  of  gas 119 

works  using  gas 121 

Findlay  oil  field  218 

Findlay  monocline  48,  54,     67 

structure  of 91 

Forest  gas  field  183 

Fostoria  gas  field 138,  190 

amount  of  gas  used 191 

wells 190,  191 

Fredericktown  axis 50 

Freeport  oil  field 312 

G 

Gas  fields — 

Barnesville 254 

Cambridge 255 

Findlay 105 

Gibsonburg 108 

Indiana ; 109 

Lancaster 234 

Marysville 273 

Mercer  county  161 

Stuartsville '..  128 

Thurston 231 

Waterville 155 

Wood  county 133 

Gas  measurement  (chapter) 281 

Pitot  tube  gauge 281 

examples 288 

tables 292,  293 

tables  illustrating  use.. .286,  287 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Oasts  measuremen  — 

Principle  of  flow  in  pipes 297 

formula  298 

rule  for  determination...  299 

table  for  pipe  line  flow..  300, 

[301 

Gas,   natural '  and   oil    (see    also   pe- 
troleum)— 

Chemical  theories 61 

Anderson's  statement 62 

Berthelot 61 

Mendeli'eff 61 

Geological  theories 71 

duration  of  supply 84 

Hunt's  Dr.  T.  8.  theory 77 

Newberry's  theory 72 

Peckham's  theory 75 

quantity  of  gas  supply 86 

summary  of 85 

importance ,     60 

modes  of  accumulation 87 

•cover 88 

reservoir  87 

porous  rock .". 88 

structure 89 

anticlinal  theory 90 

illustrated  in  Ohio 91 

relation  to  relief 92 

origin 60 

rock  pressure - 92 

calculated  and  observed  pres- 
sure   98,  102 

back  pressure 104 

causes  of 94 

discussion  of  theories 95 

law  of 102 

inference  from  1  aw 103 

records  of 100,  102 

White,  I.  C.,  theory 96 

Gas  rates — schedule  of — 

Cambridge 256 

Carey 176 

Columbus  242 

Findlay 121 

Gibsonburg 174 

Greenville 171 

Lancaster 237 

Lima  198 

Newark 239 

Oak  Harbor  field 173 

Wapakoneta 161 

Toledo 144 

Urbana  168 


PAGE 
Gas  utilization  of,  in  Ohio  (chapter)..  259 

conclusion 280 

summary 278 

uses — 

domestic  fuel 259 

meters 263 

mixers  262 

prices 262 

for  manufacturers  ...  264 

amount  consumed 264 

equivalent  of,  in  coal 265 

fuel  proper 267 

iron  and  clay  working 273 

clay  working 275 

iron  mills 274 

glass  manufacture 267 

amount  consumed  per  day ..269-  271 

consumption  total 212 

number  of  glass  pots 272 

lime  burning 276 

Gauge  pressures 298 

Geological  scale  of   Ohio — 

divisions  10  -11 

thickness  II 

Geological  structure  of  Ohio — 

character  of  the  ancient  seas 45 

character  of  the  surface 46 

eastern  Ohio 49-51 

dip  49 

fundamental  facts 9 

marine  formations 10 

northeastern  Ohio 51 

dip  52 

depth  of  Berea 52 

order  of  deposits 10 

stratified  deposits 9 

Geological  Survey,  First — 

date 1 

officers    2 

reports 2 

Geological  Survey,  Second — 

character  of  reports 3 

date 3 

distribution  of  reports 4,  5 

officers  3 

publications 3 

Geological  Survey,  Third — 

advantages  of  plan 6 

date 5 

law 6 

objects  7 

organization 5 

relation  to  agriculture 7 

relation  to  water  supply ,  7 


INDEX. 


319 


PAGE 

Geyser  Oil  Company 217,  218 

Gibsonburg  Gas  Company 174 

Gibsonburg  oil  field ••••  223 

Glacial  drift 45 

Glass  manufacture — 

use  of  gas  in 267—273 

locations  of  furnaces,*!  19, 144, 153, 163, 
[188,  191 

number  of  pots 272 

Greenville  pipe  line 170 

rates 171 

rock  pressure 171 

wells 171 

Guelph  limestone 19 

character 19 

thickness 19 

Gypsum  beds 21 


Hamilton^'shale 26 

character 26,     27 

locality ,. 26 

Hardin  county  gas  wells 182 

Ada 184 

wells  of 184,  185 

rock  pressure 185 

.Dunkirk  186 

Forest i  ..  183 

Kenton 182,  183 

Hancock  county — 

gas  production... 112 

Allen  township  123 

Cass  township 131 

Findlay' 105-123 

Marion 131 

Washington  132 

oil  wells  of — 

Findlay  field 218 

Marion  and  Cass  townships...  220 

Stuartsville 219 

Helderberg,  Lower,  limestone 21 

bitumens  of 79 

carbonaceous,  matter  of 22 

description  22 

revealed  by  drill 23 

thickness 22 

Helderberg,  Upper,  limestone 24-26 

exposure  at  Columbus 26 

composition 25 

divisions 25 

thickness 25 

Herrick,  Prof.  C.  L 34,  35,  39,  40,     42 


PAGE 

Hillsboro  sandstone.. 20 

characteristics 20 

thickness 20 

Hofer,  Hans,  Prof 71 

Hudson  River  group 15 

area 16 

character  of 15 

discussion  as  to  name. 15 

shales 16 

Hunt's  theory  of  origin  gas  and  oil 76 

advantages  of 83 

bituminous  decomposition 77 

essential  points 82 

examination  of 78 

oil  and  gas  in  limestones 106 

Huron  shale 28 

Hydraulic  Press  Brick  Works 122 


Iron  mills  using  gas 274 

Findlay 274 

Toledo  ..  ..  144 


Johnston,   J.  O.,   discovery  Thurston 

field  ..  ..  241 


Kenton  Gas  Company 183 

L 

Lancaster  gas  field 231,  232,  234 

date  of  drilling 234 

rates  for  fuel 237 

rock   pressure  237 

utilization 236 

wells  of 235 

Leidy,  Joseph,  Prof  68 

Lesley,   J.    P.,   Prof.,   theory   of  rock 

pressure , 95 

Lima  gas  field 105 

depth  of  dead  line 107 

structure Ill 

Lima  Natural  Gas  Company 157 

wells  of 158 

Lima  oil  field 216 

amount  198 

character  of 196 

Chicago  pipeline 199 

date   of  drilling  195 

prices   of  oil 198,  314 

production 195 

purchase  by  Standard  Oil  Co 200 

use  of  oil  as  fuel 199 

wells 196 


320 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Lime  burning  with  gas 276 

Limestone,   Subcarboniferous    identi- 
fied by  Andrews 43 

characteristics  43 

localities 43 

Lindsey  gas  field 174 

Locke,   John,   Dr ,  mention  of  oil   in 

Clinton 227 

Logan  group 39-42 

best  development 40 

characteristics 40 

conglomerate 39 

connection  with  gas  and  oil 42 

separation  by  Prof.  Andrews 40 

thickness 40-42 

M 

Macksburgh  anticline 51 

associated  with  gas 51 

associated  with  oil 197 

analysis  of  crude  oil 197 

Manitoulin  island 106 

Marion  township 131 

wells  of 132 

Medina   shale 16 

color 17 

thickness  16 

Mendeljefi's  theory  of  origin  gas  and 

oil 61 

Anderson's  statement  of 62 

character  of 70 

conflict  with  geology 69 

examination  of 67 

process  of  formation 65 

relation  of  oil  fields  to  mountains     63 

Mercer  county  gas  wells 161 

Celina  pipe  line 162 

purchase  of 164 

Greenville  pipe  line 170 

Mercer  pipe  line 164 

wells  of 165 

pressure 162 

Urbana  pipe  line 166 

Van  Wert  pipe  line 166 

Mercer  county  oil  wells ..  212 

reservoir  oil  field 212 

Mercer  pipe  line 164 

wells  of 165 

Meters  for  natural  gas 263-278 

Monclova  sandstone 24 

N 

Newark  gas  field 231,  237 

rates 239 


PAGE 

Newark  rock  pressure 238 

wells 238 

Newberry,  J.  S.,  Prof.,  theory  of  origin 

gas  and  oil 72 

Niagara  group 18-21 

area jg 

bitumens  of 79 

character  of  limestone 19 

shale 19 

thickness ig 

North  Baltimore  ^ ;as  field 140 

North  Baltimore  oilfield 305 

Northeast  lines 110,  111,  307 

Northwestern  Ohio  Natural  Gas  Co...  141 
tow.ns  supplied 142 

0 

Oak  Harbor  Natural  Gas  Company...  172 

rates 173 

Ohio  Oil  Company,  219,  221,  222,  224,  225 

Ohio  Valley  oil  field 257 

Oil  (see  petroleum). 

Oil  Creek,  Pennsylvania 58 

Drake  well 59 

fir&t  important  well 59 

Oil  fields— 

Buckland 213 

Cadiz  250 

-    Cridersville 215 

Findlay 218 

Freeport 312 

Gibsonburg  and  Helena 223 

Lima    216 

Macksburg 250 

Ohio  Valley 257 

Reservoir,  Mercer  county 212 

Spencerville 217 

St.  Mary's 213 

Stuartsville 219 

Wood  county 306 

Oil  production  of  Trenton  limestone. 
(See  Trenton  limestone). 

Oil  sand 208 

of  Pennsylvania 30 

Oil    wells,  number  in  Trenton  lime- 
stone  ,..  211 

acieage  demanded 210 

Olentangy  shale 26 

Olive   shales 41 

Ottawa  county — 

gas  wells 172 

Oak  Harbor  field 172 

rates 173 

oil  field 192,  913 


INDEX. 


32I 


PAGE 

Paragon  refinery 201 

capacity  of 202 

Peckham's  theory — 

origin  of  gas  and  oil 75 

examination  of 76 

Peerless  refinery 204 

Petroleum  and  natural  gas — 

date  of  great  development 59 

early  history  of 57,  109 

later  history 59 

origin 60 

origin  and  accumulation  (chapter)     55 

vegetable  origin 71 

Pipe  lines — 

Buckeye 4 195,  199 

Carey 168 

Celina 162 

Columbus  241 

Greenville 170 

Mercer  164 

New  Bremen 161 

Northwestern  Ohio 141 

Toledo 144 

Urbana 166 

Van  Wert 166 

Wapakoneta 160 

rates  at  Toledo 145 

Pipe  lines,  measurements  of 297 

examples  ; 304,  305 

formula  for 298 

rule  for  determination 299 

table  for  pipe  flow 300,  301 

Pitot  tube  gauge 281 

application  to  gag  wells 283 

examples 288 

service  capacity  of  gas  wells 285 

velocity  of  flow 284 

volume  of  flow  at  well  mouth 283 

application  to  pipe  lines 288 

absolute  measurements 294 

tables 294,  295 

correction  for  velocity  curve..  295 

examples 296 

measurement  of  pipe  lines....  289 

precaution  to  be  observed 290 

tables  for 292,  293 

forms  of 282 

stream  with  frte  exit 282 

stream  enclosed 282 

references 281 

Point  Pleasant  quarries 12 

analysis  of  limestone 12 

Prairie  Depot  oil  field 314 


PAGE 

Putnam  county  gas  wells 192 

Ottawa 192 

wells  of 193 

B 

Refineries— 

Bradner 204 

Eagle 203 

Paragon 201 

'  Peerless 204 

Solar 203 

Refining  of  Trenton  limestone  oil 201 

Robinson,  S.  W.,  Prof.— 

invention  pipe  line  gauge 266 

on  measurement  of  gas 281-305 

Rock  pressure  of  gas  (see  gas,  natural). 

8 

Salina  group 20 

gypsum  beds 21 

in  New  York  series 21 

Salt  water — 

cause  of  ascent 97 

dead  line  to  oil  and  gas 107 

height  of  coltimn 97 

pressure  of,  in  oil  field 209 

quantity 96 

specific  gravity 100 

Srndusky  county — 

{ps  wells  173 

Gibsouburgh 173 

Lindsey 174 

supply  of  gas 174 

use  in  lime  kilns 173 

oil  wells. 223 

Gibsonb'rgli  and  Helena  fields  223 

number  of  wells 225 

Seneca  county — 

gas  wells 186 

Fostoria 190 

Tiffin  186 

pipe  line 188 

rock  pressure 189 

utilization  of. ..188,  189 

wells 189,  190 

oil  wells 222 

Shale,  Ohio,  or  black — 

character  of 27 

fossils  of 31  -  33 

Newberry's  classification 28 

oil  and  gas  of 78,  248 

boundary  of..  32 

Solar  refinery 203,  216 


G. 


322 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Standard  Oil  Company 195 

advances  in  price  of  oil 206 

reductions  in  price 310 

in  Cadiz  oil  field 253 

price  of  oil  established  by...l95-310 
Solar  refinery,  of 203 

St.  Mary's  village'corporation — 

gas  line 157 

Structure,  relation  to  gas  and  oil  (see 
natural  gas). 

Stuartsville  gas  field 128 

Stnartsville  oil  field 

Sylvania  sandstone 23 

locality 23,    25 

thickness 24 


Tables- 
cubic  feet  e;as  discharged 286-287 

for  absolute  measurement 294 

for  pipeline  flow 300,  301 

for  Pitot  tube  gauge 292,  293 

test  for  Pitot  tube  gauge 294,  295 

Thurston  gas  field 231,  240 

Columbus  pipe  line 241 

discovery  of  gas 241 

pressure 242 

rates  at  Columbus 242 

Tiffin  Natural  Gas  Company  187 

wells  of 189,  190 

Tiffin  wells 138 

Toledo  pipe  line 144 

legal  proceedings  involved 149,  150 

rates 145}  147 

report  of  trustees 149 

Trenton  Falls 12 

character  of  limestone 107 

Trenton  limestone — 

composition 13    106 

cover  of 14 

dip  of 12 

extent  of 11 

gas  production  (1888-1890) 112 

Auglaize  county 156 

Hancock  county 112 

Allen  township  123 

Cass  township 131 

Findlay  (see  Findlay  field.) 

change  of  policy 120 

discovery  of  gas 105,  112 

depth  of  dead  line 107 

failure  of  gas  113 

gas  production H2 

growth  of  city 113 


PA6E 

Trenton  Limestone — 

utilization  of  gas 119 

waste  of  gas 113,  120 

Marion  township 131 

Washington  township  132 

Hardin  county 182 

Mercer  county 161 

Ottawa  county 172 

Putnam  county  192 

Sandusky  county 173 

Seneca  county 186 

Wood  county  .,'. 133 

Bloom  township 133 

Henry  township 140 

Perry  township 138 

Wyandot  county  .„ 174 

guides  in  drilling....* m 

oil  production  of  (1888-1890) 194 

chemical  analysis  197 

conclusions 198,  199 

development  of  the  fields  211 

Allen  county 215 

Auglaize  county 212 

Hancock  county 218 

Mercer  county  212 

Bandusky  county 223 

Wood  county 306 

Wyandot  county 220 

Geological  factors 208 

acreage  of  oil  wells 210 

capacity  of  single  wells 210 

life  of  oil  wells 211 

number  of  wells 211 

oil  sand 208 

presence  of  saltwater 209 

prices  of  oil 196 

[199,  206,  314 

production  of  oil  to  acre 210 

used  as  fuel 206 

qualities  and  uses  of  oil  196 

chemical  analysis  197 

conclusions 198,  199 

refineries — 

Bradner 204 

Eagle  203 

Paragon 201 

Peerless 204 

Solar 203 

refining  of  Trenton  oil 201 

origin  of  name 12 

place  in  scale  13 

as  reservoir 106 

source  of  gas  and  oil 80,  105 

thickness 14 

thickness  in  Kentucky 


INDEX. 


323 


PAGE 


Trenton  Limestone — 

topography 108 

underground  distribution 47 

Tymochtee  slate 23 


Utica  shale 14 

Upper  Sandusky  field  176 

production 180 

records 178,  181 

wells .' 177 

Urbana  pipe  line 166 

rates 168 


Van  Vleck,  George... H.... 202 

Van  Wert  pipe  line 166 

W 

Wall,  G.  P.,  on  Trinidad  asphalt 80 

Wapakoneta  pipe  line 160 

gas  rates  of ..  , 161 

Waterlime  group 21-24 

Waverly  group 33,    42 

boundaries 34 

origin  of  name 33 

Wells,  deep — 

Amanda 243 

Axe 158 

Ballard  114 

Bloomdale 136 

Carey 175 

Carnaham 127 

Coshocton  245 

Dewey 125 

Dresden 246 

Eaton 228 

Findlay 125 

Flushing 253 

Gibson 221 

Heck 118 

Holliday 252 

Hume 105 

Hutfeon 125 

Jones  114 

Kagy    123 

Karg 105,  114 


Wells,  deep — 

Lancaster  235 

Loomis 187 

Mansfield 245 

McCarty •*• 173 

Melott 125 

Mt.  Vernon 244 

Newark  238 

Pioneer  116 

Plain  City.. 246- 

Both  well 131,  175 

Somerset  246 

Swable 221 

Thorntree  131 

Tippecanoe 117 

Ware  126 

Well  records — 

Amanda '. 243 

Coshocton 245 

Flushing 254 

Lancaster *. 232 

Mansfield 245 

Mt.  Vernon 244 

Plain  'City 246 

Somerset  246 

White,  I.  C.,  Prof.— 

anticlinal  theory  of 90 

on  Berea  grit  as  source  of  oil  and 

gas 249 

theory  of  rock  pressure 96 

Winchell,  N  H 26 

Wood  county  gas  wells 133 

Bloom  township 133-137 

Center  and  Plain  townships 152 

Henry   township 140,  141 

Perry  township 138,  139 

Portage  and  Liberty 151 

Remaining  townships 155 

Waterville  gas  field 155,  156 

Wood  county  oil  wells 306 

Wyandot  county — 

gas  wells 174 

Carey  field  174-176 

Upper  Sandusky 176-178 

records  of 178-181 

oil  wells....  ..  220 


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